Oceans on Mars - Revision history

Suitupshowup: /* Was there enough water */ added new info and ref about shorelines

2026-04-17T18:23:04Z

Was there enough water: added new info and ref about shorelines

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */

2025-05-14T22:37:07Z

Where did the water go

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */

2025-05-14T22:30:45Z

Where did the water go

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */

2025-05-14T17:29:04Z

Where did the water go

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */ added new info and ref about underground water

2025-05-14T17:23:52Z

Where did the water go: added new info and ref about underground water

Suitupshowup: added more info about carbonates

2025-04-26T14:47:31Z

added more info about carbonates

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */ added new info and ref on carbonates

2025-04-26T01:04:18Z

Where did the water go: added new info and ref on carbonates

Suitupshowup: added ref

2025-03-21T14:03:09Z

added ref

Suitupshowup: /* Where did the water go */

2025-03-21T13:30:51Z

Where did the water go

Suitupshowup: added new info and ref

2025-03-21T13:27:53Z

added new info and ref

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 In addition, more water was required to develop valley networks, outflow channels, and delta deposits of Mars than was in a Martian ocean, according to research reported in 2017.  This implies that there was plenty of water for an ocean.<ref>cite journal | url=https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2017/pdf/1734.pdf | title=New Martian valley network volume estimate consistent with ancient ocean and warm and wet climate | author=Luo, W., et al. | journal=Lunar And Planetary Science | year=2017 | volume=XLVIII | pages=15766 | doi=10.1038/ncomms15766 | pmid=28580943 |pmc=5465386| bibcode=2017NatCo...815766L </ref>
 In 2009 a team of researchers tried to find out exactly how many stream channels existed on Mars.    They developed a computer program that examined topographical data.  The program looked for U-shaped structures, since that would be the shape of channels carved by water.  They found many more channels, and in some areas the valley density was similar to what is found on the Earth.  Such a high density of channels supports rain on the planet.  A large ocean may have been needed to provide enough moisture for rain.  A northern ocean would explain the way that certain channels are distributed around the planet.  For example, valleys tend to get shallower in the south, perhaps because they are farther from the ocean.  Also, there seems to be a southern limit for valleys where less water could be carried  from a northern ocean.<ref>cite news | author = Staff | title = Martian North Once Covered by Ocean | date = 26 November 2009 | url = http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/3322/martian-north-once-covered-by-ocean | work = Astrobiology Magazine | accessdate = 19 February 2014</ref> <ref>cite news | author = Staff | title = New Map Bolsters Case for Ancient Ocean on Mars | date = 23 November 2009 | url = http://www.space.com/7584-map-bolsters-case-ancient-ocean-mars.html | work = Space.com | accessdate = 2014-02-19</ref>
 ===Size of ocean===

@@ Line 92: / Line 92: @@
 Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that liquid water exists deep underground. According to a paper published April 25, 2025 in the journal National Science Review, recordings of seismic waves from deep within the Red Planet indicate that a layer of liquid water may be lurking in the Martian rocks between 3.4 and 5 miles [5.4 to 8 kilometers] below the surface.
-The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref>.  Another group earilier found similar results and suggested The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.Liquid water in the Martian mid-crust
+The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref>.  Another group earilier found similar results and suggested the water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.Liquid water in the Martian mid-crust
-<ref>Vashan Wright https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3238-4526 vwright@ucsd.edu, Matthias Morzfeld https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2257-8930, and Michael Manga https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3286-4682Authors Info & Affiliations
+<ref>Vashan Wright https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3238-4526 vwright@ucsd.edu, Matthias Morzfeld https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2257-8930, and Michael Manga https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3286-4682
 (35) e2409983121
-https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2409983121<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
+https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
 They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations obtained from InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>Jakosky, B.  2025.   Results from the inSight Mars mission do not require a water-saturated mid crust.  Letter Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences. 122 (11) e2418978122  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/the-universe/mars/what-happened-to-all-the-water-on-mars-the-debate-continues?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=58E4DE65-C57F-4CD3-9A5A-609994E2C5A9&utm_medium=email&utm_content=22609226-D300-4C70-9B8F-1139DC6030FA&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref>

@@ Line 92: / Line 92: @@
 Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that liquid water exists deep underground. According to a paper published April 25, 2025 in the journal National Science Review, recordings of seismic waves from deep within the Red Planet indicate that a layer of liquid water may be lurking in the Martian rocks between 3.4 and 5 miles [5.4 to 8 kilometers] below the surface.
-The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref>.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
+The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref>.  Another group earilier found similar results and suggested The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.Liquid water in the Martian mid-crust
 They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations obtained from InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>Jakosky, B.  2025.   Results from the inSight Mars mission do not require a water-saturated mid crust.  Letter Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences. 122 (11) e2418978122  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/the-universe/mars/what-happened-to-all-the-water-on-mars-the-debate-continues?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=58E4DE65-C57F-4CD3-9A5A-609994E2C5A9&utm_medium=email&utm_content=22609226-D300-4C70-9B8F-1139DC6030FA&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref>

@@ Line 92: / Line 92: @@
 Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that liquid water exists deep underground. According to a paper published April 25, 2025 in the journal National Science Review, recordings of seismic waves from deep within the Red Planet indicate that a layer of liquid water may be lurking in the Martian rocks between 3.4 and 5 miles [5.4 to 8 kilometers] below the surface.
-The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
+The total volume of hidden water could flood the whole of Mars' surface with an ocean 1,700 to 2,560 feet [520 to 780 metres] deep, around the same volume of liquid that is contained within Antarctica's ice sheet, the study authors estimated.<ref>https://www.livescience.com/space/mars/scientists-find-hint-of-hidden-liquid-water-ocean-deep-below-mars-surface?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=368B3745-DDE0-4A69-A2E8-62503D85375D&utm_medium=email&utm_content=7A404C61-C432-438F-9414-F1C935EF3C79&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref> <ref> Sun, W., et al.  2025. Seismic evidence of liquid water at the base of Mars' upper crust.  National Science Review.   nwaf166, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaf166 </ref>.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
 They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations obtained from InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>Jakosky, B.  2025.   Results from the inSight Mars mission do not require a water-saturated mid crust.  Letter Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences. 122 (11) e2418978122  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/the-universe/mars/what-happened-to-all-the-water-on-mars-the-debate-continues?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=58E4DE65-C57F-4CD3-9A5A-609994E2C5A9&utm_medium=email&utm_content=22609226-D300-4C70-9B8F-1139DC6030FA&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref>

@@ Line 90: / Line 90: @@
 It was believed that Mars may have been much warmer in the past due to a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere that would have through a global warming effect raised the temperature above the freezing point of water.  If that was so, where did all the Carbon dioxide go?  Chemically it should have been deposited as carbonates and formed limestone type rocks.   Despite searches with instruments aboard satellites, very little carbonates have been found. <ref>Bandfield, J. , et al.  2000.  A global view of Martian surface composition from MGS-TES.  Science:  287, 1626-1630.</ref>  <ref>Christensen, P., et al.  2001.  Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment:  Investigation description and surface science results.  J. Geosphy. Res.  106, 23823-23871</ref>  Better data that was obtained from the Curiosity Rover did find some iron carbonates.   CheMin measurements of rocks found crystalline siderite (FeCO3).  One rock contained over 10 % of the mineral.  The rocks also were composed of  the silicate mineral  plagioclase with the elements sodium (Na)–, Ca-, and aluminum (Al)–, as well as  Ca- and Mg-bearing silicate mineral pyroxene.   Other minerals found were calcium sulfates, magnesium sulfates, different amounts of iron oxyhydroxides, and an unidentified x-ray amorphous material.<ref> https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado9966</ref>   On the other hand, there is strong evidence of acid conditions which would prevent carbonates from forming.<ref> Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> <ref> Catling, D. (1999-07-25). "A chemical model for evaporites on early Mars: Possible sedimentary tracers of the early climate and implications for exploration" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (E7): 16453–16469. Bibcode:1999JGR...10416453C. doi:10.1029/1998JE001020</ref> <ref> Fairén, Alberto G.; Fernández-Remolar, David; Dohm, James M.; Baker, Victor R.; Amils, Ricardo (2004-09-23). "Inhibition of carbonate synthesis in acidic oceans on early Mars" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7007): 423–426. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..423F. doi:10.1038/nature02911. PMID 15386004</ref> Orbiting instruments, as well as instruments on landers have found sulfates that may have formed under acid conditions.<ref>https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160006674.pdf</ref> <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514003522</ref> <ref>Farrand, W., et al.  2014.   Detection of copiapite in the northern Mawrth Vallis region of Mars: Evidence of acid sulfate alteration.  Icarus:  241, 346-357.</ref>
-Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that a large lake of liquid water exists deep underground.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
+Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that liquid water exists deep underground. According to a paper published April 25, 2025 in the journal National Science Review, recordings of seismic waves from deep within the Red Planet indicate that a layer of liquid water may be lurking in the Martian rocks between 3.4 and 5 miles [5.4 to 8 kilometers] below the surface.
 They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations obtained from InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>Jakosky, B.  2025.   Results from the inSight Mars mission do not require a water-saturated mid crust.  Letter Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences. 122 (11) e2418978122  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/the-universe/mars/what-happened-to-all-the-water-on-mars-the-debate-continues?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=58E4DE65-C57F-4CD3-9A5A-609994E2C5A9&utm_medium=email&utm_content=22609226-D300-4C70-9B8F-1139DC6030FA&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref>

@@ Line 88: / Line 88: @@
 </gallery>
-It was believed that Mars may have been much warmer in the past due to a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere that would have through a global warming effect raised the temperature above the freezing point of water.  If that was so, where did all the Carbon dioxide go?  Chemically it should have been deposited as carbonates and formed limestone type rocks.   Despite searches with instruments aboard satellites, very little carbonates have been found. <ref>Bandfield, J. , et al.  2000.  A global view of Martian surface composition from MGS-TES.  Science:  287, 1626-1630.</ref>  <ref>Christensen, P., et al.  2001.  Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment:  Investigation description and surface science results.  J. Geosphy. Res.  106, 23823-23871</ref>  Better data that was obtained from the Curiosity Rover did find some iron carbonates.<ref> https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado9966</ref>   On the other hand, there is strong evidence of acid conditions which would prevent carbonates from forming.<ref> Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> <ref> Catling, D. (1999-07-25). "A chemical model for evaporites on early Mars: Possible sedimentary tracers of the early climate and implications for exploration" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (E7): 16453–16469. Bibcode:1999JGR...10416453C. doi:10.1029/1998JE001020</ref> <ref> Fairén, Alberto G.; Fernández-Remolar, David; Dohm, James M.; Baker, Victor R.; Amils, Ricardo (2004-09-23). "Inhibition of carbonate synthesis in acidic oceans on early Mars" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7007): 423–426. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..423F. doi:10.1038/nature02911. PMID 15386004</ref> Orbiting instruments, as well as instruments on landers have found sulfates that may have formed under acid conditions.<ref>https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160006674.pdf</ref> <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514003522</ref> <ref>Farrand, W., et al.  2014.   Detection of copiapite in the northern Mawrth Vallis region of Mars: Evidence of acid sulfate alteration.  Icarus:  241, 346-357.</ref>
+It was believed that Mars may have been much warmer in the past due to a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere that would have through a global warming effect raised the temperature above the freezing point of water.  If that was so, where did all the Carbon dioxide go?  Chemically it should have been deposited as carbonates and formed limestone type rocks.   Despite searches with instruments aboard satellites, very little carbonates have been found. <ref>Bandfield, J. , et al.  2000.  A global view of Martian surface composition from MGS-TES.  Science:  287, 1626-1630.</ref>  <ref>Christensen, P., et al.  2001.  Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer experiment:  Investigation description and surface science results.  J. Geosphy. Res.  106, 23823-23871</ref>  Better data that was obtained from the Curiosity Rover did find some iron carbonates.   CheMin measurements of rocks found crystalline siderite (FeCO3).  One rock contained over 10 % of the mineral.  The rocks also were composed of  the silicate mineral  plagioclase with the elements sodium (Na)–, Ca-, and aluminum (Al)–, as well as  Ca- and Mg-bearing silicate mineral pyroxene.   Other minerals found were calcium sulfates, magnesium sulfates, different amounts of iron oxyhydroxides, and an unidentified x-ray amorphous material.<ref> https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado9966</ref>   On the other hand, there is strong evidence of acid conditions which would prevent carbonates from forming.<ref> Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM</ref> <ref> Catling, D. (1999-07-25). "A chemical model for evaporites on early Mars: Possible sedimentary tracers of the early climate and implications for exploration" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 104 (E7): 16453–16469. Bibcode:1999JGR...10416453C. doi:10.1029/1998JE001020</ref> <ref> Fairén, Alberto G.; Fernández-Remolar, David; Dohm, James M.; Baker, Victor R.; Amils, Ricardo (2004-09-23). "Inhibition of carbonate synthesis in acidic oceans on early Mars" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7007): 423–426. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..423F. doi:10.1038/nature02911. PMID 15386004</ref> Orbiting instruments, as well as instruments on landers have found sulfates that may have formed under acid conditions.<ref>https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160006674.pdf</ref> <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514003522</ref> <ref>Farrand, W., et al.  2014.   Detection of copiapite in the northern Mawrth Vallis region of Mars: Evidence of acid sulfate alteration.  Icarus:  241, 346-357.</ref>
 Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that a large lake of liquid water exists deep underground.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>

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 Based on data from InSight, scientists used models to determine that a large lake of liquid water exists deep underground.  The water would be in fractures in igneous rocks.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121</ref> <ref> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cPSA9_PrMg</ref> <ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOTxzi_CqFU</ref>
-They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations based on the InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref>
+They estimate that there is enough liquid water under the surface to produce water across the surface that would be more than half a mile deep.  However, it would be hard to get to as it is 10-20km deep.  The team of researchers used measurements from more than 1,319 quakes to come to their conclusions.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czxl849j77ko</ref>  Calculations obtained from InSight lander's data suggest up to 2 km  global equivalent layer (GEL) could be in the crust.<ref>https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>Jakosky, B.  2025.   Results from the inSight Mars mission do not require a water-saturated mid crust.  Letter Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences. 122 (11) e2418978122  https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2418978122</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/the-universe/mars/what-happened-to-all-the-water-on-mars-the-debate-continues?utm_term=CABA215D-3D47-4C9A-92FE-9ECF8D4C7909&lrh=e62336263a3610a07ef7c8af2080c758f2ecd0661aab1a8e6234cf31f0d0fdff&utm_campaign=58E4DE65-C57F-4CD3-9A5A-609994E2C5A9&utm_medium=email&utm_content=22609226-D300-4C70-9B8F-1139DC6030FA&utm_source=SmartBrief</ref>
 ===Water lost to space===