Difference between revisions of "Air"

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Settlers on [[Mars]] depend on artificial '''air''' for breathing, since the [[atmosphere]] is too thin and poisonous.
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[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|Breathing keeps the Carbon Cycle running]]
  
==Low pressure effects==
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Settlers on [[Mars]] will depend on manufactured '''air''' for breathing, since the planet's [[atmosphere]] is too thin and lacks Oxygen.
The [[human]] breathing works best at [[Earth|terrestrial]] sealevel with an air pressure of 1013 Hektopascal (hPa). The air pressure on the Mount Everest is only 340 hPa.
 
  
In such high altitudes of the terrestrial atmosphere the air pressure drops to dangerous values, resulting in acute mountain sickness (AMS) and high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE).
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Standard air on Earth is composed of Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%), with traces of other gases at 101,3 kPa (14,7 psi) of pressure.
  
==Oxygen reduction for fire prevention==
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==Gases==
The terrestrial atmosphere contains 21% [[oxygen]], which is the value that human beings have adapted to during a long evolution process. But there is some tolerance. Under normal air pressure persons can live and work with down to 13% oxygen. The danger of [[fire]] is much lower in a low oxygen air. With 15% oxygen even paper canhjdrhkwebhfgjkfherjgjkfhrfherukfghekdgydtgjydgjydgpeiihssddbfcdjerhk
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\
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===Oxygen===
 +
[[Oxygen]] is the one essential component of any breathing gas. At sea level on Earth, the partial pressure of oxygen is about 22 kPa, habitats on Mars will likely have a similar amount. However, high oxygen concentrations and high oxygen partial pressures both contribute to increased flammability, so it may be best to supplement oxygen with other inert gases.
 +
 
 +
===Inert gases===
 +
[[Nitrogen]] and [[argon]] are available in similar concentrations in Mars’ atmosphere and would both be suitable for use in habitats. Because inert gases slow the spread fire by absorbing heat, and nitrogen has about 65% more heat capacity per volume than argon<ref>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Tables/heatcap.html Molar Heat Capacities, Gases]</ref>, nitrogen may be preferred. But it is also plausible that a nitrogen/argon mix would be used since the mix would be easier to obtain, or that argon would be used, since nitrogen has other uses like production of fertilizer.
 +
 
 +
===Carbon dioxide===
 +
Carbon dioxide is a low concentration atmospheric component in the habitat, produced by the human metabolism and industrial processes. Excess carbon dioxide concentrations can produce a variety of negative health effects, even at low concentrations.  But CO<sub>2</sub> is a also a requirement for plant metabolism.  A study on astronauts on the International Space Station found that headache risk was significantly affected by CO<sub>2</sub> levels even at concentrations below 10,000 ppm<ref>[https://journals.lww.com/joem/Abstract/2014/05000/Relationship_Between_Carbon_Dioxide_Levels_and.4.aspx Relationship Between Carbon Dioxide Levels and Reported Headaches on the International Space Station]</ref>. Nuclear submarines can operate with up to 9000 ppm in their atmosphere. In Mars habitats, carbon dioxide will have to be separated and removed, or converted back into oxygen by plants.  
 +
 
 +
=== Water vapor ===
 +
Water vapor is a product of evaporation, respiration, and combustion processes. At normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, most water condenses out of the atmosphere.  However, depending on temperature and humidity, water can represent from 0 to 3% of the atmosphere.  The residual water is essential for comfort.  Plants and people produce large amounts of water vapor, that needs to be removed to avoid excessive humidity.
 +
 
 +
==Pressure==
 +
It may be worthwhile to keep Mars habitats at a lower pressure than we generally experience on Earth. This was done on the Apollo and Skylab missions, which both had total pressures of 5 psi (34 kPa). Robert Zubrin advocates for a Skylab-type habitat air mix on Mars, with 3.5 psi (24 kPa) O<sub>2</sub> and 1.5 psi (10 kPa) N<sub>2</sub><ref>Zubrin, Robert (2011). ''The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must'' (2nd ed.) p. 159</ref>.  However, the ISS operates at standard atmospheric pressure, as did the Space shuttle.  There are several key considerations in determining the optimal air pressure. 
 +
 
 +
===Structural stress===
 +
Using sea level Earth air pressure, the force on each square meter of a habitat’s surface would be around 100 kN, equivalent to the weight of more than 10 tonnes on Earth. Habitats on Mars will need to have high tensile strength to withstand this great force. Using a lower pressure would reduce the strain, possibly leading to more lightweight and less expensive habitats.
 +
 
 +
===Oxygen partial pressure===
 +
The level of oxygen in the air must be high enough to supply sufficient oxygen to the bloodstream. To do this, the partial pressure of oxygen reaching the alveoli in the lungs must be comparable to what we experience on Earth. Because our lungs are saturated with water vapor, oxygen is partially crowded out at very low total pressures, so at those pressures, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air required to properly supply our lungs is actually higher.
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|+Oxygen concentrations to provide sea level O<sub>2</sub> absorption<ref>[https://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu/old_site/design_lib/HSSWG_3-02.pdf Guidelines and Capabilities for Designing Human Missions]</ref>
 +
!Total pressure (kPa)
 +
!Oxygen partial pressure (kPa)
 +
!Percent oxygen
 +
|-
 +
|25.5
 +
|25.5
 +
|100
 +
|-
 +
|34.5
 +
|23.8
 +
|69.0
 +
|-
 +
|48.3
 +
|22.7
 +
|47.0
 +
|-
 +
|62.1
 +
|22.1
 +
|35.5
 +
|-
 +
|101.4
 +
|21.2
 +
|21.0
 +
|}
 +
Since humans can survive at pressures significantly below sea level on Earth, lower oxygen pressures than shown above would certainly be tolerable. However, physical and mental performance are diminished at high altitudes on Earth, so the same is likely true for partial pressures significantly below those in the chart.
 +
 
 +
===Flammability===
 +
Flammability is influenced by both the concentration (percentage) and partial pressure of oxygen in an environment, with concentration having the greater effect<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160001047.pdf Oxygen Partial Pressure and Oxygen Concentration Flammability: Can They Be Correlated?]</ref>. So for a given partial pressure of oxygen, reducing the total pressure increases the fire risk.
 +
 
 +
===Heat transfer===
 +
Air convection is one of the main heat transfer mechanisms. Reduced pressure air has less capacity for convective heat transfer, and added ventilation is required for work in low density air.  Most plants function more efficiently if there is air movement to remove heat and evaporation from their surface.
  
 
==Open Issues==
 
==Open Issues==
 +
 
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to survive?
 
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to survive?
 
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to live and work?
 
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to live and work?
Line 17: Line 69:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
<references/>
+
<references />
  
[[Category:Health]]
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[[Category:Air]]

Revision as of 05:43, 6 June 2019

Breathing keeps the Carbon Cycle running

Settlers on Mars will depend on manufactured air for breathing, since the planet's atmosphere is too thin and lacks Oxygen.

Standard air on Earth is composed of Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%), with traces of other gases at 101,3 kPa (14,7 psi) of pressure.

Gases

Oxygen

Oxygen is the one essential component of any breathing gas. At sea level on Earth, the partial pressure of oxygen is about 22 kPa, habitats on Mars will likely have a similar amount. However, high oxygen concentrations and high oxygen partial pressures both contribute to increased flammability, so it may be best to supplement oxygen with other inert gases.

Inert gases

Nitrogen and argon are available in similar concentrations in Mars’ atmosphere and would both be suitable for use in habitats. Because inert gases slow the spread fire by absorbing heat, and nitrogen has about 65% more heat capacity per volume than argon[1], nitrogen may be preferred. But it is also plausible that a nitrogen/argon mix would be used since the mix would be easier to obtain, or that argon would be used, since nitrogen has other uses like production of fertilizer.

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a low concentration atmospheric component in the habitat, produced by the human metabolism and industrial processes. Excess carbon dioxide concentrations can produce a variety of negative health effects, even at low concentrations. But CO2 is a also a requirement for plant metabolism. A study on astronauts on the International Space Station found that headache risk was significantly affected by CO2 levels even at concentrations below 10,000 ppm[2]. Nuclear submarines can operate with up to 9000 ppm in their atmosphere. In Mars habitats, carbon dioxide will have to be separated and removed, or converted back into oxygen by plants.

Water vapor

Water vapor is a product of evaporation, respiration, and combustion processes. At normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, most water condenses out of the atmosphere. However, depending on temperature and humidity, water can represent from 0 to 3% of the atmosphere. The residual water is essential for comfort. Plants and people produce large amounts of water vapor, that needs to be removed to avoid excessive humidity.

Pressure

It may be worthwhile to keep Mars habitats at a lower pressure than we generally experience on Earth. This was done on the Apollo and Skylab missions, which both had total pressures of 5 psi (34 kPa). Robert Zubrin advocates for a Skylab-type habitat air mix on Mars, with 3.5 psi (24 kPa) O2 and 1.5 psi (10 kPa) N2[3]. However, the ISS operates at standard atmospheric pressure, as did the Space shuttle. There are several key considerations in determining the optimal air pressure.

Structural stress

Using sea level Earth air pressure, the force on each square meter of a habitat’s surface would be around 100 kN, equivalent to the weight of more than 10 tonnes on Earth. Habitats on Mars will need to have high tensile strength to withstand this great force. Using a lower pressure would reduce the strain, possibly leading to more lightweight and less expensive habitats.

Oxygen partial pressure

The level of oxygen in the air must be high enough to supply sufficient oxygen to the bloodstream. To do this, the partial pressure of oxygen reaching the alveoli in the lungs must be comparable to what we experience on Earth. Because our lungs are saturated with water vapor, oxygen is partially crowded out at very low total pressures, so at those pressures, the partial pressure of oxygen in the air required to properly supply our lungs is actually higher.

Oxygen concentrations to provide sea level O2 absorption[4]
Total pressure (kPa) Oxygen partial pressure (kPa) Percent oxygen
25.5 25.5 100
34.5 23.8 69.0
48.3 22.7 47.0
62.1 22.1 35.5
101.4 21.2 21.0

Since humans can survive at pressures significantly below sea level on Earth, lower oxygen pressures than shown above would certainly be tolerable. However, physical and mental performance are diminished at high altitudes on Earth, so the same is likely true for partial pressures significantly below those in the chart.

Flammability

Flammability is influenced by both the concentration (percentage) and partial pressure of oxygen in an environment, with concentration having the greater effect[5]. So for a given partial pressure of oxygen, reducing the total pressure increases the fire risk.

Heat transfer

Air convection is one of the main heat transfer mechanisms. Reduced pressure air has less capacity for convective heat transfer, and added ventilation is required for work in low density air. Most plants function more efficiently if there is air movement to remove heat and evaporation from their surface.

Open Issues

  • What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to survive?
  • What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to live and work?
  • What are the results from the Biosphere 2 experiment? Ideas for mitigation and/or compensation?
  • What is known about the behaviour of dusty air under low gravity?

References