Marspedia - User contributions [en]

Smoke

2018-03-02T21:01:27Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:paper_fire.jpg|right|frame|Burning of paper or plastic creates smoke]]

'''Smoke''' is created by fire, smouldering and some production processes. It is poisonous, and it is hard to filter out. In a [[Mars|Martian]] [[habitat]] the creation of smoke must be avoided.

==Tobacco==

Is strictly prohibited.

==Fire protection==

*Selection of fire-proof material for construction, as well as for thermal and electrical [[insulation]]
*[[Air#Oxygen reduction for fire prevention|Oxygen reduction]]
*[[automation|Automatic]] fire extinguishing system

==Production processes==
Some high temperature processes create smoke. Those processes must be taken care of. Vacuum technology and strictly separated rooms are inevitable. The following processes are affected:
*[[Welding]]
*[[Soldering]]
*[[Metallurgy]]
*[[Recycling]] of [[synthetic materials]]

== Food Preservation ==
Smoking is a common method of [[food preservation]]. Though likely impractical for a small settlement, smoked [[food|foods]] such as [[fish]] or jerky could be produced as a luxury item for [[:category:commerce|trade]] with [[inter-settlement commerce|other settlements]].

[[Category:Concepts]]

Air

2018-03-02T20:57:48Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|Breathing keeps the Carbon Cycle running]]

Settlers on [[Mars]] depend on artificial '''air''' for breathing, since the [[atmosphere]] is too thin and poisonous.

==Low pressure effects==
The [[human]] breathing works best at [[Earth|terrestrial]] sea level with an air pressure of 1013 Hektopascal (hPa). The air pressure on the Mount Everest is only 340 hPa.

In such high altitudes of the terrestrial atmosphere the air pressure drops to dangerous values, resulting in acute mountain sickness (AMS) and high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE).

==Oxygen reduction for fire prevention==
The terrestrial atmosphere contains 21% [[oxygen]], which is the value that human beings have adapted to during a long evolution process. But there is some tolerance. Under normal air pressure persons can live and work with down to 13% oxygen. The danger of [[fire]] is much lower in a low oxygen air. With 15% oxygen even paper can no longer burn with a flame. <ref>[http://www.nutrition.org.uk/home.asp?siteId=43&sectionId=422&parentSection=322&which=undefined www.baulinks.de]</ref>

==Open Issues==
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to survive?
*What air pressure, combined with different oxygen levels, is required for persons to live and work?
*What are the results from the [[Biosphere 2]] experiment? Ideas for mitigation and/or compensation?
*What is known about the behaviour of dusty air under low [[gravity]]?

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Health]]

Foam

2018-03-02T20:47:33Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:foamed_polystyrene.jpg|right|frame|Sheets of foamed polystyrene for insulation of houses.]]

'''Foam''' is a solid or liquid matrix filled with many gas bubbles. Due to its low density, most types of foam are good [[insulation|insulators]]. The external fuel tank of the [[Space Shuttle]] is insulated with a layer of foam. Other uses include sealants, bedding, consumer goods, and [[list of Construction Materials|construction materials]].

{{stub}}

Waste biomass recycling

2018-02-19T18:54:59Z

Rfc: Correction of wording. Link to an English source added.

[[Image:CompostWithEarthworm.jpg|right|frame|Compost with Earthworms]]
All [[settlement|settlements]] generate waste [[biomass]] as a direct result of their biological population. '''Waste biomass recycling''' and recycling of [[water]] is a vital part of any [[colonization strategy]].

==Bone==
A settlement's initial supply of [[bone]] will be low, as the majority of farming will be plant-based.
===Bone Ash===
[[Bone ash]] is the result of burning bone. It is used in the manufacture of [[fertilizer]] and [[ceramics]].
===Bone Char===
[[Bone char]] is created by charring bone. It is useful in [[filter|filters]], where it acts similarly to [[charcoal]]. It captures metals such as [[fluorine]], [[copper]], and [[zinc]]. Bone char is also used as a pigment.
===Bone Meal===
Crushed bone is used as a fertilizer.
===Collagen and Gelatin===
The bones and connective tissue of animals contain [[collagen]], which can be extracted. The collagen can by [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] into [[gelatin]], used in many [[food|foods]] and other products.

==Urine==
Most terrestrial [[animal|animals]] flush waste from their bodies with [[water]], producing [[feces|urine]].
===Industrial Chemicals===
Urine contains [[ammonia]] and [[urea]], both useful in industry. [[Saltpeter]] is harvested from stale urine.
===Fertilizer===
Urine contains high levels of [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]].
===Water===
Urine can be filtered or distilled to provide water. This method of [[water reclamation]] is used on the [[International Space Station|ISS]].
===Antiseptic===
In extreme emergencies, urine can be used as an [[antiseptic]].

==Plant Remnants==
Plants grown primarily for food and life support can provide several side benefits.
===Paper===
The cell walls of plants contain [[cellulose]], the main component of [[paper]].
===Textiles===
From [[grass]] mats to fine [[linen]], [[human|humans]] have been using [[plant fibers]] to make [[textiles]].
===Other Goods===
[[Corn]] husks, [[wheat]] stalks, and [[vines]] can be made into a variety of goods.

===Construction Materials===
Biomass has been used in construction since the beginning of human history. [[Wood]] is often used by itself to construct large structures. Dead plants can be mixed with [[cob]] or [[brick]], adding strength.

==Miscellaneous Biomass==
===Hydrocarbons===
Many types of biomass are well suited to [[Hydrocarbon synthesis]]. [[Methane]] and other small [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]] are produced naturally by certain types of [[microbes]] and cows as they feed on biomass.

===Compost and Feed===
Much of the waste biomass of a settlement can be used to feed the organisms in the [[greenhouse|greenhouses]]. [[Mushroom]], certain [[fish]] and [[insects]] feed directly on waste biomass, assimilating its chemical [[energy]] into their own metabolism. A [[compost]] heap is easy to maintain, even in a Martian settlement. Decayed plant remnants and [[feces]], combined with charcoal and lactic acid fermentation, mixed with [[regolith]], gives a high value humus, called [[Terra Preta]]. This would be an excellent [[soil]] for the [[greenhouse]].

===Trickle Filter C.R.O.P.===
A glass cylinder, filled with spongy lava stones, can decompose most organic wastes, including urine, feces, leftover food and plant parts. It uses bacteria, that are normally living in terrestrial soil. The columns are trickled with a steady stream of water. The [[DLR]] (Jens Hauslage) is working on the optimization of this principle for space stations and planetary missions.<ref>[http://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/forschak/2098919/ Deutschland Radio: Ein Komposthaufen für die Raumstation (German)]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.dlr.de/dlr/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-10081/151_read-17874/#/gallery/23027 Eu:CROPIS – Greenhouses for the Moon and Mars]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Recycling]]

==References==
<references/>

[[category:biospherics]]
[[category:concepts]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]

Terraforming

2018-02-18T11:46:13Z

Rfc: image added

[[File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg|thumb|The planet Mars under a global glas dome. This is certainly not an idea of terraforming, but it gives an idea of the dimensions of the topic.]]
'''Terraforming''', or ''Earth-shaping'', is a theoretical process of modifying a planet's atmosphere to make it habitable for humans. In the case of Mars, terraforming would require artificial thickening of the atmosphere to intensify the process of [[greenhouse effect|greenhouse warming]] (heating the frozen landscape), [[water|ice]] melting to increase the H2O content of the atmosphere (creating [[clouds|water clouds]]) and greatly increasing the [[oxygen|O2]] density to ultimately make the atmosphere breathable.

==Mars and the "Triple Point" of water==

[[Image:Phase_diagram_water.png|thumb|right|200px|The phase diagram for water, clearly displaying water's [[triple point]].]]

Presently, [[water|ice]] on Mars [[sublimation|sublimes]] as the atmospheric pressure is so low, ice bypasses the liquid phase when heated. Sublimation occurs allowing ice to turn directly into gas (steam). One of the main challenges for future terraforming efforts would be to increase the atmospheric pressure significantly so water can exist as a liquid on the surface of Mars. The atmospheric pressure will therefore need to be greater than the [[triple point]] of water (thereby existing as ice, liquid and gas).

==Methods==
A life supporting atmosphere needs to contain a "buffer gas", such as nitrogen. Mars is currently lacking in nitrogen, but nitrogen could be sourced from Venus, Saturn's moon Titan, or from comets.
Mars could be warmed up using greenhouse gases such as perflurocarbons, which are stable in the atmosphere for long periods of time. Mirrors could be placed in orbit to increase the amount of insolation Mars receives.

Other greenhouse gasses include sulfur hexafluoride and 1,1,1-Trichloro ethane. These are very stable and highly effective greenhouse gasses. Use of such gasses to warm the atmosphere would allow the Carbon dioxide frozen into the polar caps and some of the water to evaporate adding to the mass of the atmosphere.If 4 hundredths of a microbar of manufactured greenhouse gas is needed to warm Mars to the point of runaway greenhouse effect, then a mass of manufactured greenhouse gasses equal to about 5.73 times the cargo capacity of the Edmund Fitzgerald every week for twenty years would be required for the project.

==Pioneer Organisms==
Certain organisms, such as [[archaea]], [[lichen]], and [[tardigrades]] have been proven capable of surviving extreme environments, such as the vacuum of space. They could gain a foothold on the martian surface after minimal terraforming. The byproducts of their metabolism would contribute to the terraforming efforts.

==Long term prospect==

The ultimate results of terraforming are disputed. Terraforming may have only a temporary effect, even if the effect lasts for some hundred or thousand years. Eventually, the [[solar wind]] may carry away most of the new atmosphere due to the insufficient [[magnetosphere|magnetic field]]s of Mars. It has been suggested that the cost of terraforming a planet would be prohibative, however to a growing population on the surface of that planet it would most likely be considered a normal colonial function to ensure that daily colonial endeavours have a positive effect on the atmosphere.

[[category:Terraforming Mars]]
[[category:climate]]
[[category:settlements]]

Flax

2018-02-18T11:31:06Z

Rfc: /* Linen */ link corrected

[[Image:Flax.jpg|thumb|right|px|The Flax plant]]
The '''flax''' [[plants|plant]] is a good candidate for inclusion in a Martian [[settlement]]. On [[Earth]], [[humans]] grow it for its seeds, [[oil]], and [[natural fiber|fiber]].

==Flax Seed==
Flax seeds are high in [[fat|fats]] and [[protein]]. Most varieties are high in [[omega-3 fatty acids|omega-3]] [[fatty acids]]. Raw flax seed is used as a [[dietary suppliment]], though the ingestion of large amounts can cause sickness due to trace amounts of [[cyanide]]. Seeds have a long shelf life when whole.

==Linseed Oil==
Seeds are crushed to produce [[linseed oil]].

==Linen==
The stalks of the flax plant are processed to release the [[natural fiber]]s. These fibers are then woven into [[linen]].

==Open Issues==
*How easily can flax be grown using [[hydroponics]] or [[aeroponics]]?
*What varieties of flax are best suited to a [[greenhouse]]?
*What processing methods remove the small amounts of cyanide in the seeds?

{{stub}}
[[category:Plants]]

Compost

2018-02-13T19:23:39Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:CompostWithEarthworm.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Compost with Earthworms]]
'''Compost''' is vital in growing [[plants]]. Compost can be made from [[waste biomass recycling|organic waste]], and enriched with chemicals such as [[ammonia]]. [[funeral|Dead bodies]] may be a part of compost.

[[Category:Greenhouse]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]

Fertilizer

2018-02-13T19:20:26Z

Rfc: link added

'''Fertilizer''' is used to enrich the growing medium of [[plants]] with essential nutrients. It differs from [[compost]] in that compost is used as [[soil]] or mixed into soil, while fertilizer is added solely as a source of nutrients. Fertilizer can be made with [[waste biomass recycling|organic waste]] and enriched with chemicals like [[Ammonia]].

{{stub}}

[[category:agriculture]]
[[Category:Greenhouse]]

Environmental conditions

2018-02-13T19:17:48Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:126609main_image_feature_400a_ys_full.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The dry and cold surface]]
The '''Environmental conditions''' on [[Mars]] are different from those of [[Earth]]. [[Human]] beings can not live there without technical systems. Unless successful [[terraforming]] can be performed, Martian settlers are bound to artificial [[habitat]]s.

==Temperature==
The temperatures on the Martian surface is much lower than on Earth.

*Average atmosphere temperature: -63 °C
*Diurnal temperature range: -89 °C to -31 °C ([[Viking]] 1 Lander site)
*Minimum: −125 °C near the poles in winter
*Maximum: 20 °C near the equator

==Atmosphere pressure==
The Martian [[atmosphere]] has one hundreth of Earth's atmospheric density and seven thousandths of Earth's atmospheric pressure. The pressure varies considerably from day to day, from season to season, and from place to place on Mars. For practical purposes when designing pressure vessels to maintain life supporting conditions on Mars it is sufficient to estimate the Martian atmospheric pressure as zero.

==Wind speed (Viking Lander sites)==
*Summer: 2-7 m/s
*Fall: 5-10 m/s
*[[Dust storms]]: 17-30 m/s
*[[Dust devils]]: ?

==Open issues==
* Is there a potential threat from dust devils?

==External Links==
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html Nasa: Mars Fact Sheet]
*[http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/mars_worldbook.html Nasa: World Book]
*[http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/index.html Nasa: Atmospheric Pressure]

[[Category:Climate]]

Vaccination program

2018-02-12T20:19:50Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:syringe.jpg|thumb|right]]
Although many infectious diseases, such as hepatitis or influenza, will not be on [[Mars]], there are still some [[microbes|germs]] that can not be avoided completely. Moreover, the [[immune system]] itself may cause problems. Therefore, a '''Vaccination Program''' must be defined.

==Adults originated from Earth==
Immigrants from [[Earth]] come with a fully developed immune system.
However, they should be periodically vaccinated against [[tetanus]].

==[[Children]] growing up on Mars==
There is evidence for the occurrence of an allergy with children growing up in a sterile environment. Statistically, children growing up in frequent contact with other children on Earth have a much lower risk to suffer from allergy in their adolescent or adult years. On Mars the [[population]] is much smaller in the beginning, resulting in a significant lower chance for children to be exposed to enough germs to stimulate the developing immune system. A vaccination program should help. Possible vaccinations for babies:
* Tetanus
* Rhinitis (systematic exposure instead of vaccination)
* Rubeola
* Roseola

{{settlementIndex}}

[[category:Health]]
[[category:Human Considerations]]

File:Syringe.jpg

2018-02-12T20:19:17Z

Rfc: Source: User:Rfc has painted this image.

Source: User:Rfc has painted this image.

Radiation shielding

2018-02-12T19:57:28Z

Rfc: images added

[[Image:WaterShieldGreenhouse.png|thumb|right|300px|Water-shield Greenhouse Concept]]
Shielding against [[radiation]] is considered a very difficult task. For example, a proton or alpha particle cosmic ray of "medium" energy can pass through more than a metre of aluminium, not counting the effects of [[secondary radiation]]<ref name=Logan>''Operational medicine and health care delivery'' - J.S. Logan, in S.E. Churchill ed. ''Fundamentals of space life sciences, Volume 1'' - 1997, ISBN 0-89464-051-8 pp. 154-156.</ref>. With this in mind, it is clear that any Martian colonists would have to take a holistic approach, reducing their radiation exposure at every possible opportunity through shielding and risk-mitigating behaviour.

==Passive shielding==
[[Image:Greenhouse_marsfoundation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Mars Foundation]] concept for a side-lit greenhouse.]]
In most cases, matter placed between a person (or radiation-sensitive equipment) and radiation source reduces the amount of radiation they absorb. The effectiveness of the shielding increases with the mass of the shielding and decreases with the atomic mass of the elements used for the shielding. For example, 1kg of [[hydrogen]] offers more protection then 1kg of [[aluminium]], 2kg of aluminium offers more protection than 1kg of aluminium and 1kg of hydrogen offers more protection than 2kg of aluminium.<ref>''Radiation biology'' - J.R. Letaw, in S.E. Churchill ed. ''Fundamentals of space life sciences, Volume 1'' - 1997, ISBN 0-89464-051-8 pp. 16-17.</ref>

[[Mars One]]'s solution is a thick layer of [[regolith]] on top of the settlement modules. An effective shield will require at least several hundred grams of regolith per square centimeter, according to one study.<ref>Slaba, T. C., Mertens, C. J., & Blattnig, S. R. (2013). Radiation Shielding Optimization on Mars. ''NASA/TP–2013-217983.'' Retrieved from https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20130012456.pdf</ref> Using a regolith density estimate of 1.4 g/cm3<ref>Kim, M. Y., Thibeault, S. A., Simonsen, L. C., & Wilson, J. W. Comparison of Martian Meteorites and Martian Regolith as Shield Materials for Galactic Cosmic Rays. ''NASA TP-1998-208724.'' Retrieved from https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980237030.pdf.</ref>, this means the regolith layer would need to be over 2 meters deep.

==Active shielding==
Active shielding against radiation involves a manmade magnetic field which deflects ionized particles in the same manner as the Earth's. Such fields would require infeasible amounts of energy to generate and would also pose a major risk to anyone approaching the craft or base, as it would create bands of trapped particles similar to the Van Allen belts.<ref name=Logan />

Nevertheless, it might be possible to situate a base in such a location that one of the residual Martian magnetic fields offers a nett benefit. Care should certainly be taken not to situate it where the fields concentrate radiation.

Also, it might be possible (assuming one could generate the required magnetic field in some way) to have the radiation belts of the habitat pass through some sort of physical barrier, which scrubs them of particles.

==Risk-mitigating behaviour==
The possible sources of radiation on Mars are manmade sources, such as nuclear reactors or medical equipment, [[solar radiation]], [[galactic cosmic radiation]] and naturally occuring [[radioactive elements]] on Mars.

Possible behavioural choices which minimize the risk from these include:
*Avoiding daytime [[EVA]] when there is a significan risk from solar radiation.
*Working preferentially close to natural or manmade objects, such as habitats, rovers or cliffs which provide additional (if not omni-directional) shielding.
*Entering a [[storm shelter]] when there is a high-radiation risk from [[solar particle event|solar particle events]].

==References==

<references />

[[Category:Safety]]

Storm shelter

2018-02-12T19:30:49Z

Rfc: images added

[[Image:Cave_Room.PNG|thumb|right|px|Using a [[Volcanic cave settlement|natural cave]] for shelter]]
A '''storm shelter''' is a place where colonists can take refuge from a [[solar flare]]. The main [[settlement]] will be well shielded, so it in itself will be a storm shelter. However, manned [[rover]]s, [[railroad]] cars, [[airship]]s and
[[space access|landers]] will need emergency shielding if a solar flare occurs.
===Physical Shields===
[[Image:WaterShieldGreenhouse.png|thumb|right|300px|Water-shield Greenhouse Concept]]
A good material for this is [[polyethylene]], because it contains many [[hydrogen]] atoms, is light and can be made on [[Mars]] easily. [[Water]], which is two-thirds hydrogen, is another shielding option.
===Energy Shields===
Strong localized magnetic fields have been shown to offer significant shielding from [[radiation]]. Such shields could be made portable for use on vehicles.
===Open issues===
*Is there any way of measuring high radiation levels on the surface of Mars? If such levels are detected, will it be too late?
*Even with [[space access]], an autonomous colony will not be able to launch its own satellites to monitor the [[Sun]] until a rather advanced state of development.

===See also===
*[[Radiation shielding]]

[[Category:Manned Missions]]
[[Category:Safety]]

Radiation

2018-02-12T19:12:21Z

Rfc: /* Open issues */ information about required thickness of regolith layer available in article Radiation shielding

[[Image:nuclear_warning_sign.png|right|Nuclear Danger Icon]]
Natural '''Radiation''' on [[Mars]] is much higher compared with [[Earth]]. The thin [[atmosphere]] provides only a small shielding effect against harmful [[solar radiation]] and [[cosmic radiation]]. Mars also lacks the [[magnetosphere]] that protects Earth.

Occasional [[solar flares]] produce particular high doses. Some solar proton events (SPEs) were observed by [[MARIE]] that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact that SPEs are directional. Astronauts on Mars could be warned of SPEs by sensors closer to the Sun and presumably take shelter during these events. This would imply an [[Early warning system (solar radiation)|Early Warning System]] (possibly a network of sensors in orbit around the sun or a single sensor in [[Lagrangian point]] L1) might be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected early enough.

==Types of Radiation==
Radiation comes in a variety of forms:<ref>http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/SpaceSettlement/designer/needs.html#SHIELDING</ref>
{| border="1"
|-
!Name
!Relative Biological Effectiveness RBE
!Source
|-
|'''[[X-ray|X-Rays]] and [[gamma ray|Gamma Rays]]'''
|1
|[[Radiation belts]], [[solar radiation]], and bremsstrahlung electrons
|-
|'''[[electron|Electrons]]''' 
1.0 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1 
1.08
|Radiation belts
|-
|'''[[proton|Protons]]''' 
100 MeV 
1.5 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1-2 
8.5 
10
|Cosmic rays, inner-radiation belts, and solar [[cosmic rays]]
|-
|'''[[neutron|Neutrons]]''' 
0.05 ev (thermal) 
1.0 MeV 
10 MeV
| 
2.8 
10.5 
6.4
|Nuclear interactions in the [[sun]]
|-
|'''[[alpha particles|Alpha Particles]]''' 
5.0 MeV 
1.0 MeV 
Heavy Primaries
| 
15 
20 
varies widely
|Cosmic rays
|}

==Danger==
Exposure to dangerous levels of radiation causes [[radiation sickness]] and cancer. Any exposure to radiation, no matter how slight, poses some risk. Small dose - small risk of cancer. High dose - high risk of cancer.

Nevertheless, there are defined legal limits for exposure during work for several professional activities, such as for X-ray assistants, airplane personnel, etc. The International Commission on Radiation Protection recommends that occupational (work-related) radiation exposure be limited to 50 millisieverts (mSv) per year, and limited to 100 mSv over any 5-year period<ref>http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103</ref>. NASA's radiation dose limits for astronauts are established in NASA-STD-3001<ref>NASA. (2015). NASA Space Flight Human-System Standard Volume 1, Revision A: Crew Health. Retrieved from https://standards.nasa.gov/standard/nasa/nasa-std-3001-vol-1</ref>.

The equivalent dose rate from cosmic radiation on Earth's surface at sea level is 0.26 mSv per year<ref>http://www.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/msv.php</ref>. Based on measurements made by the Curiosity rover, the corresponding figure for the surface of Mars is approximately 230 mSv/year<ref name=":0">http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6169/1244797.full</ref>. Curiosity also measured the temporary increase in radiation during a single SPE. The results indicate an increase in equivalent dose rate of approximately 25% over a 1-day interval<ref name=":0" />. This figure will vary depending on the intensity of a particular SPE.

==Effect on material==
Radiation can change the properties of [[plastics]] and metals, making them brittle after a period of time.

==Protection==
[[House]]s should be equipped with a [[radiation shielding]], thick enough to reduce the radiation to a level equal to Earth, that is, almost zero. Best protection may be achieved with houses built in natural [[caves]] or set into cliffs or hillsides.

[[Space suit]]s must be designed with radiation in mind. The suit should provide adequate shielding for the occupant. It may be necessary to design suits with several grades of protection. Suits designed for short-term use can carry lighter shielding which would reduce weight and improve maneuverability.

During severe radiation events, such as [[solar flare|solar flares]], surface [[settlement|settlements]] may use [[storm shelter|storm shelters]] with heavier than normal shielding.

==Open issues==
*What is the required thickness of a [[water]] layer upon a house for radiation shielding?
*Does regolith emit an own portion of radiation, some kind of secondary radiation due to the long exposure to cosmic and solar radiation?

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.ips.gov.au/ IPS:] [http://www.ips.gov.au/Category/Educational/Space%20Weather/Space%20Weather%20Effects/guide-to-space-radiation.pdf A Guide to Space Radiation]
*[http://www.niauk.org/radiation-and-safety.html Nuclear Industry Association: Radiation, health and nuclear safety]

[[Category:Hazards]]

Failure of the settlement

2018-01-27T13:55:52Z

Rfc: Severity, Risk analysis and Mitigation added

A complete '''failure of the colony''' would mean the death of all settlers. Possible causes can be [[human failure]], [[fail-safe|technical failure]] and acts of nature beyond control. It could take decades or centuries before a subsequent colonization attempt is started. This article wants to collect situations, incidents, precautions and mitigations.

== Destruction of life support ==
===[[Oxygen]]===

===Temperature===
If [[heating]] systems fail, the [[temperature]] in on-surface buildings may drop rapidly and destroy equipment and plants. Humans may freeze to death.

Precaution: Underground parts of the settlement draw benefit from the high heat capacity of the surrounding rock, which keeps the temperature for a long time. The interior of the settlement rooms can be optimized to store large amounts of warmth. Big [[water]] tanks have a high heat capacity.

===[[Water]]===

== Contamination of [[air]] or [[food]] ==
... with radioactive, chemical or bacteriological substances
* Risk: Intoxication, injury
* Precaution: If dangerous substances are not produced, they can not pose a threat. If such substances are unavoidable, they should be produced, used and stored in a separated part of the colony, where no other vital system can be affected in case of an incident.

== Destruction or contamination of [[greenhouse]]s ==
* Severity: Vital.
* Risk: Starvation and suffocation of the settlers.
* Mitigation: Redundancy. Separation of zones.

== Disconnection or destruction of [[energy]] network ==
* Severity: Vital.
* Risk: If the energy network is poorly designed, the energy supply for the colony can break down completely by a defect in any of the ''single points of failure''.
* Mitigation: Decentralization of the network. Make sure that any remaining part of the network continues to function locally. This concept involves a structural redundancy of all vital parts and sub-parts.

== Disconnection or destruction of [[internet|telecommunication]] network ==
* Severity: Non-vital.
* Risk: Supervision of remote parts of the colony may gets lost.
* Mitigation: Redundancy.

== Explosion, causing drop in air pressure ==
* Severity: Vital.
* Risk: Suffocation of the settlers. Dissolution of the greenhouse plants.
* Mitigation: Several zones of living space, separated by bulkheads.

== Destruction of transportation means ==
... that are needed to reach peripheral sites of the colony
* Severity: Non-vital.
* Risk: Growing of the colony is interrupted.
* Mitigation: Keep all vital stuff in a [[Recycling]] loop.

== Destruction of [[equipment]] that is needed for maintenance of vital systems ==

==Biological==
The human metabolism need a great variety of substances. The full complexity of all interactions is not fully understood. If there is a shortage or an excess of some rather unknown substances, the [[health]] might be seriously affected. In worst case the ability to work and maintain the vital parts of the colony falls below a required minimum.
Such substances may possibly produced by some sort of [[germs]] that are omnipresent on Earth, but are not in the Martian colony.

The [[immune system]] may get out of balance, since the ensemble of germs around and inside of the settlers will be different or narrowed. If, unlike in the [[ISS]], the bacteriological profile is not updated frequently, some vital germs might become extinct.

Mitigation: A garden with soil is a living ground for many [[microbes]] and germs.

[[category: Safety]]

Mission concepts

2018-01-27T13:25:14Z

Rfc: dead link removed

This article collects different '''mission concepts''' for a [[manned mission]] to [[Mars]]. The purpose is to compare the concepts and point out the differences. The financial aspect is in focus.

== [[Direct cargo mission]] ==
A direct cargo mission will be vital in the [[Unmanned setup of a whole settlement]] of a colony, in resupplying an [[Earth-supported colony]], and delivering repair parts to a [[semi-autonomous colony]].

===Financial expenditure===

== [[Colonization mission]] ==
A type of [[manned one-way mission|one-way mission for colonization]], utilizing a man-rated version of the direct cargo mission.

===Financial expenditure===

== [[Manned resupply mission]] ==
A two-way manned mission to resupply a [[semi-autonomous colony]] or a manned outpost.

===Financial expenditure===

== [[Phobos boost mission]]-article in development ==
An unmanned mission to the moon Phobos, using a VASIMR drive to slowly spiral it out into a higher orbit.

===Financial expenditure===

== [[Mars Direct]] ==
A plan by [[Robert Zubrin]], the head of the Mars society, to send people to Mars and back.

===Financial expenditure===

===Mars for less===
Basically Mars Direct, but with the parts broken up so that they can be launched on Medium Lift Launch Vehicles (MLLVs), such as the Ariane V, Delta IV and Proton.

===Financial expenditure===

== Aldrin cycler ==
Mission architecture by second person to walk on the moon, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, to have a habitat, a cycler, in a continuous orbit between Mars and Earth.<ref>[http://buzzaldrin.com/space-vision/rocket_science/aldrin-mars-cycler/ Buzz Aldrin ''Aldrin Mars Cycler'']</ref>

===Financial expenditure===

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==

== See also ==

[[Category:Manned Missions]]
[[Category:Concepts]]

File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

2018-01-25T16:31:56Z

Rfc: Rfc uploaded a new version of File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

== Summary ==
The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.
== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

2018-01-25T16:27:14Z

Rfc: Rfc uploaded a new version of File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

== Summary ==
The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.
== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

2018-01-25T16:25:43Z

Rfc: Rfc uploaded a new version of File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

== Summary ==
The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.
== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

2018-01-25T16:25:08Z

Rfc: Rfc uploaded a new version of File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

== Summary ==
The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.
== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

Marspedia:Logo-suggestions

2018-01-21T20:53:34Z

Rfc: yet another Logo proposal

[[File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg|thumb|Logo proposal: The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B1.jpg|thumb|Logo B1 proposal: Girl reading book (or laptop or smart phone) under the tree of knowledge, on a brown edge of planet, outer curves are a greenhouse. proposal B1]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B2.jpg|thumb|Logo B2 proposal: Open Book in front of Mars globe, could be a drawing of Mars, or photo. Optional "MarspediA" underneath, note trailing capital A as done by WikipediA. proposal B2]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B3.jpg|thumb|Logo B3, proposal. Open Book of Knowledge, in front of Mars globe or image, various technologies flying out. Globe shows Valles, Volcanoes, Ice Cap. Proposal B3]]
Suggested Logos for Marspedia:
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B4.jpg|thumb|Logo B4 proposal: Open Book in forground, Mars globe in background, fading out at lower edge. To be replaced with photo of Mars. Proposal B4]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B5.jpg|thumb|Logo B5 proposal: Book of Knowledge, from which springs the technology to live on Mars. proposal B5]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B6.jpg|thumb|Logo B6, proposed: Mars Globe faded at south edge, showing surface features: ice cap, Olympus Mons, 3 Tharsis volcanos, Valles Marineris. Below in foreground are letters MarsPedia, with 3 people lounging on the letters, reading a tablet/smart phone, a laptop, and thinking, Thought bubbles rise from the left and right people to the globe. Proposal B6]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B7.jpg|thumb|Logo B7 Proposal. Open book of Knowledge, in front and somewhat below Mars globe or image, to give better view of globe, Ice cap visible to be more recognizable as Mars, globe. Could be colored brown for contrast with ice cap. Could show Valles and Mountains. Proposal B7.]]
[[File:Logo-MP-proposed-B8.jpg|thumb|Logo B8 Proposal. Person reclining on a Mars Globe pillow, reading book of Mars Knowledge, with thought bubbles leading to upper Mars globe or image. To be recognizable as Mars, upper globe shows Valles, Mountains, & Ice cap. Could be colored brown for contrast with ice cap. Lower globe is a pillow showing white ice cap. Proposal B8.]]
initally by Bruce Mackenzie, BMackenzie@Marspedia.org
Feel free to add comments or more logo suggestions

File:Logo-Mars-in-a-shell.jpg

2018-01-21T20:52:25Z

Rfc: The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.

== Summary ==
The planet Mars in a half-transparent shell of puzzle pieces. The use of puzzle pieces follows a general logo idea of many wikis.
== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

Railroad

2018-01-21T19:38:58Z

Rfc: the hyperloop concept as one option

'''Railroad''' is a commonly used transportation system on [[Earth]], and it can be used on [[Mars]] as well. [[Iron]] as the main construction material is abundant on the Martian surface. Compared with most other transportation systems, the railroad is basically [[hi-tech versus lo-tech|lo-tech]] and can, therefore, be maintained with low effort.

Compared with [[rover]]s a railroad system is rather inflexible, but it can have an advantage for frequently used ways. On the long run it allows energy optimized transport. No batteries or fuels are necessary if electrical engines are used. Especially for driverless material transport it can be a central part of the [[settlement]]'s infrastructure.

Elon Musk's initiative to develop the ''hyperloop'' technology allows the anticipation of a very similar transportation system on Mars. Compared to the terrestrial concept it would require only a thin-walled tube. The air pressure in the tube would be slightly higher than the surrounding Martian atmosphere, preventing the invasion of dust. Musk himself imagines a version without a tube on Mars.

==Use cases==

===The transport of a maintenance team===
Peripheral parts of a Martian settlement might be several kilometers away from the [[house|living quarters]]. [[Energy]] generating stations (e.g. [[solar panel]]s, [[wind turbine]]s) are spread over a large area. A light weight railroad system reduces the maintenance costs on the long run.

===Transportation in tunnels===
Parts of the colony will be underground. During [[mining]] activities a railroad system provides a comfortable transportation of material and persons over long underground distances.

===Connection between two settlements===
Railroad covers both short and long distances. Even in the far future with more than one settlement on Mars, people will still be interested in efficient transportation systems. Only a magnetic levitation system might have a better energy balance.

==Open issues==
*Can the railroad be built lighter because of the lower [[gravity]], or is the inertia of the train the main parameter?
*How much [[energy]] is needed under Martian conditions to produce 1 km railroad?

[[Category: Lo-tech]]
[[Category: Transport]]

Radiation

2018-01-21T19:05:38Z

Rfc: image added

[[Image:nuclear_warning_sign.png|right|Nuclear Danger Icon]]
Natural '''Radiation''' on [[Mars]] is much higher compared with [[Earth]]. The thin [[atmosphere]] provides only a small shielding effect against harmful [[solar radiation]] and [[cosmic radiation]]. Mars also lacks the [[magnetosphere]] that protects Earth.

Occasional [[solar flares]] produce particular high doses. Some solar proton events (SPEs) were observed by [[MARIE]] that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact that SPEs are directional. Astronauts on Mars could be warned of SPEs by sensors closer to the Sun and presumably take shelter during these events. This would imply an [[Early warning system (solar radiation)|Early Warning System]] (possibly a network of sensors in orbit around the sun or a single sensor in [[Lagrangian point]] L1) might be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected early enough.

==Types of Radiation==
Radiation comes in a variety of forms:<ref>http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/SpaceSettlement/designer/needs.html#SHIELDING</ref>
{| border="1"
|-
!Name
!Relative Biological Effectiveness RBE
!Source
|-
|'''[[X-ray|X-Rays]] and [[gamma ray|Gamma Rays]]'''
|1
|[[Radiation belts]], [[solar radiation]], and bremsstrahlung electrons
|-
|'''[[electron|Electrons]]''' 
1.0 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1 
1.08
|Radiation belts
|-
|'''[[proton|Protons]]''' 
100 MeV 
1.5 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1-2 
8.5 
10
|Cosmic rays, inner-radiation belts, and solar [[cosmic rays]]
|-
|'''[[neutron|Neutrons]]''' 
0.05 ev (thermal) 
1.0 MeV 
10 MeV
| 
2.8 
10.5 
6.4
|Nuclear interactions in the [[sun]]
|-
|'''[[alpha particles|Alpha Particles]]''' 
5.0 MeV 
1.0 MeV 
Heavy Primaries
| 
15 
20 
varies widely
|Cosmic rays
|}

==Danger==
Exposure to dangerous levels of radiation causes [[radiation sickness]] and cancer. Any exposure to radiation, no matter how slight, poses some risk. Small dose - small risk of cancer. High dose - high risk of cancer.

Nevertheless, there are defined legal limits for exposure during work for several professional activities, such as for X-ray assistants, airplane personnel, etc. The International Commission on Radiation Protection recommends that occupational (work-related) radiation exposure be limited to 50 millisieverts (mSv) per year, and limited to 100 mSv over any 5-year period<ref>http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103</ref>.

The equivalent dose rate from cosmic radiation on Earth's surface at sea level is 0.26 mSv per year<ref>http://www.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/msv.php</ref>. Based on measurements made by the Curiosity rover, the corresponding figure for the surface of Mars is approximately 230 mSv/year<ref name=":0">http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6169/1244797.full</ref>. Curiosity also measured the temporary increase in radiation during a single SPE. The results indicate an increase in equivalent dose rate of approximately 25% over a 1-day interval<ref name=":0" />. This figure will vary depending on the intensity of a particular SPE.

==Effect on material==
Radiation can change the properties of [[plastics]] and metals, making them brittle after a period of time.

==Protection==
[[House]]s should be equipped with a [[radiation shielding]], thick enough to reduce the radiation to a level equal to Earth, that is, almost zero. Best protection may be achieved with houses built in natural [[caves]] or set into cliffs or hillsides.

[[Space suit]]s must be designed with radiation in mind. The suit should provide adequate shielding for the occupant. It may be necessary to design suits with several grades of protection. Suits designed for short-term use can carry lighter shielding which would reduce weight and improve maneuverability.

During severe radiation events, such as [[solar flare|solar flares]], surface [[settlement|settlements]] may use [[storm shelter|storm shelters]] with heavier than normal shielding.

==Open issues==
*What is the required thickness of a [[regolith]] or [[water]] layer upon a house for radiation shielding?
*Does regolith emit an own portion of radiation, some kind of secondary radiation due to the long exposure to cosmic and solar radiation?

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.ips.gov.au/ IPS:] [http://www.ips.gov.au/Category/Educational/Space%20Weather/Space%20Weather%20Effects/guide-to-space-radiation.pdf A Guide to Space Radiation]
*[http://www.niauk.org/radiation-and-safety.html Nuclear Industry Association: Radiation, health and nuclear safety]

[[Category:Hazards]]

Radiation

2018-01-21T18:53:38Z

Rfc: /* Open issues */ Some of the questions have been answered. TNX

Natural '''Radiation''' on [[Mars]] is much higher compared with [[Earth]]. The thin [[atmosphere]] provides only a small shielding effect against harmful [[solar radiation]] and [[cosmic radiation]]. Mars also lacks the [[magnetosphere]] that protects Earth.

Occasional [[solar flares]] produce particular high doses. Some solar proton events (SPEs) were observed by [[MARIE]] that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact that SPEs are directional. Astronauts on Mars could be warned of SPEs by sensors closer to the Sun and presumably take shelter during these events. This would imply an [[Early warning system (solar radiation)|Early Warning System]] (possibly a network of sensors in orbit around the sun or a single sensor in [[Lagrangian point]] L1) might be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected early enough.

==Types of Radiation==
Radiation comes in a variety of forms:<ref>http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/SpaceSettlement/designer/needs.html#SHIELDING</ref>
{| border="1"
|-
!Name
!Relative Biological Effectiveness RBE
!Source
|-
|'''[[X-ray|X-Rays]] and [[gamma ray|Gamma Rays]]'''
|1
|[[Radiation belts]], [[solar radiation]], and bremsstrahlung electrons
|-
|'''[[electron|Electrons]]''' 
1.0 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1 
1.08
|Radiation belts
|-
|'''[[proton|Protons]]''' 
100 MeV 
1.5 MeV 
0.1 MeV
| 
1-2 
8.5 
10
|Cosmic rays, inner-radiation belts, and solar [[cosmic rays]]
|-
|'''[[neutron|Neutrons]]''' 
0.05 ev (thermal) 
1.0 MeV 
10 MeV
| 
2.8 
10.5 
6.4
|Nuclear interactions in the [[sun]]
|-
|'''[[alpha particles|Alpha Particles]]''' 
5.0 MeV 
1.0 MeV 
Heavy Primaries
| 
15 
20 
varies widely
|Cosmic rays
|}

==Danger==
Exposure to dangerous levels of radiation causes [[radiation sickness]] and cancer. Any exposure to radiation, no matter how slight, poses some risk. Small dose - small risk of cancer. High dose - high risk of cancer.

Nevertheless, there are defined legal limits for exposure during work for several professional activities, such as for X-ray assistants, airplane personnel, etc. The International Commission on Radiation Protection recommends that occupational (work-related) radiation exposure be limited to 50 millisieverts (mSv) per year, and limited to 100 mSv over any 5-year period<ref>http://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103</ref>.

The equivalent dose rate from cosmic radiation on Earth's surface at sea level is 0.26 mSv per year<ref>http://www.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/msv.php</ref>. Based on measurements made by the Curiosity rover, the corresponding figure for the surface of Mars is approximately 230 mSv/year<ref name=":0">http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6169/1244797.full</ref>. Curiosity also measured the temporary increase in radiation during a single SPE. The results indicate an increase in equivalent dose rate of approximately 25% over a 1-day interval<ref name=":0" />. This figure will vary depending on the intensity of a particular SPE.

==Effect on material==
Radiation can change the properties of [[plastics]] and metals, making them brittle after a period of time.

==Protection==
[[House]]s should be equipped with a [[radiation shielding]], thick enough to reduce the radiation to a level equal to Earth, that is, almost zero. Best protection may be achieved with houses built in natural [[caves]] or set into cliffs or hillsides.

[[Space suit]]s must be designed with radiation in mind. The suit should provide adequate shielding for the occupant. It may be necessary to design suits with several grades of protection. Suits designed for short-term use can carry lighter shielding which would reduce weight and improve maneuverability.

During severe radiation events, such as [[solar flare|solar flares]], surface [[settlement|settlements]] may use [[storm shelter|storm shelters]] with heavier than normal shielding.

==Open issues==
*What is the required thickness of a [[regolith]] or [[water]] layer upon a house for radiation shielding?
*Does regolith emit an own portion of radiation, some kind of secondary radiation due to the long exposure to cosmic and solar radiation?

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.ips.gov.au/ IPS:] [http://www.ips.gov.au/Category/Educational/Space%20Weather/Space%20Weather%20Effects/guide-to-space-radiation.pdf A Guide to Space Radiation]
*[http://www.niauk.org/radiation-and-safety.html Nuclear Industry Association: Radiation, health and nuclear safety]

[[Category:Hazards]]

Atmospheric processing

2018-01-01T12:19:42Z

Rfc: Restore some broken contents. Move methane stuff to the appropriate article.

'''Atmospheric processing''' describes the extraction of substances out of the Martian [[atmosphere]] and the usage as raw material for further processing. Unlike surface and sub-surface mining, the atmospheric mining does not require the movement of large amounts of [[regolith]] or rock with heavy machinery, nor is expensive transport per [[rover]] or [[railroad]] necessary. The atmosphere can simply be sucked in through a pipe at every location, and the processing is done inside of [[building]]s. Also, the maintenance of all the mining machinery is in-house, which is a major safety advantage.

== Collection of Atmosphere ==
A device similar to a vacuum pump collects Martian air. The collected gas is compressed to the habitat's internal pressure for easier handling.

== Processing ==
===Compression===
Compression above 5,19 bar allows to liquefy carbon dioxide.

===Distillation===
The atmosphere is cooled to remove water vapor as a condensate. As the gas continues to cool most of the rest of the water vapor is removed as frost. The dry gas is cooled further to remove carbon dioxide
condensate. There will be more carbon dioxide than is needed for industrial purposes so some of it will be expanded to help power the compressors and to cool the incoming gas. Then excess CO2 will be discharged.

==Wanted Substances==
===Dust===
The Martian [[atmosphere]] contains variable amounts of [[dust]], which consists of similar [[minerals]] like [[regolith]]. Electro-static filters may be used to collect the dust.

===Water===
The 0.03 % [[water]] vapor (H2O) is equivalent to about 10 % air humidity after adiabatic compression and cooling to around 1°C. A device similar to an air dehumidifier can be used to extract this water.

===Carbon Dioxide===
[[Carbon dioxide]] is the main part of the Martian atmosphere with 96 %. It can be used for the [[hydrocarbon synthesis]], including the production of [[methane]] based [[fuel]].

===Nitrogen and argon===
The balance of the remaining gas after carbon dioxide condensation contains mostly [[nitrogen]] and [[argon]]. This mixture can serve as a buffer for oxygen to produce a breathable atmosphere, where Carbon monoxide must be catalytically removed.

Nitrogen can be separated out for use as ammonia and nitrates in fertilizer and as nitric acid in industry. Argon is useful for industrial processes that must be performed in an inert atmosphere.

==See also==
*[[Mining]]

[[Category:ISRU]]
[[category: geology]]
[[category: material]]

XCOR Aerospace

2018-01-01T12:13:23Z

Rfc: link to the BFR article

Founded in 1999, '''XCOR Aerospace''' is a California company which specializes in the design and production of high reliability and low cost rocket engines.

Recently, their collaboration with [[NASA]] and [[Alliant Techsystems|ATK]] to develop [[methane]]-oxygen engines has been particularly successful, resulting in the successful construction and test-firing of their XR5M15 engine designed for spacecraft main propulsion.

==XR5M15==
[[Image:XCOR-5M15-prototype.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The XR5M15 prototype]]
[[Image:XCOR-5M15-testfire.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Test-firing the XR5M15 at [[Mojave Spaceport]]]]
The '''XR5M15''' is one of XCOR's most recent engine designs and their most powerful design to date, with a rated thrust of 7500 lbf (33.4 kN).

The engine is being developed as a partnership between XCOR and ATK for NASA as part of the [[Vision for Space Exploration]]. It is intended to provide propulsion for return flights from the Moon and Mars, as well as for in-space maneuvering. The design builds upon their smaller XR3M9 LOX/methane engine, and reuses elements from many of their other designs.

As it is fueled by [[methane]] and LOX, it has a great deal of potential use for proposed Mars missions due to the possibility of producing methane on the Martian surface from locally available materials.

==See Also==
*[[Vision for Space Exploration]]
*[[Alliant Techsystems]]
*[[Methane]]
*[[BFR]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.xcor.com/ XCOR website]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XCOR XCOR Wikipedia page]

[[category:organizations]]
[[category:emerging Technology]]

TR408 Rocket

2018-01-01T12:12:46Z

Rfc: link to the BFR article

:"''The new TR408 engine is a hybrid, which can run on almost any state of oxygen and methane. It could be all gas, for example, stored at room temperature. Or it could be all liquid, similar to the liquid oxygen/hydrogen that powers the space shuttle.''" - [http://www.universetoday.com/2007/11/15/radical-new-steering-thruster-tested/ Universe Today article.]

==See Also==
*[[Northrop Grumman]]
*[[Methane]]
*[[BFR]]

==External links==
*[http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=131378 Northrop Grumman press release]
*[http://www.universetoday.com/2007/11/15/radical-new-steering-thruster-tested/ Universe Today article on the TR408.]

[[category:Emerging Technology]]

User talk:Jburk

2017-08-30T17:50:04Z

Rfc: typo

Hello James, you have been doing a lot work here in Marspedia recently. Nice to see such great progress! After a long period with nobody in sight, it feels good to see Marspedia has not fallen to oblivion.
Now I might find new hope and energy for continuing my contribution on this wiki. As you can see, I have added a little bit just yesterday. I have edited [[Nuclear power]] and uploaded the image [Image:nuclear_warning_sign.png]. But the image has gone. May I ask you to have a look? Many Thanks. [[User:Rfc|Rfc]] ([[User talk:Rfc|talk]]) 18:46, 30 August 2017 (BST)

User talk:Jburk

2017-08-30T17:46:48Z

Rfc: Hello James

Hello James, you have been doing a lot work here in Marspedia recently. Nice to see such great progress! After a long period with nobody in sight, it feels good to see Marspedia has not fallen to oblivion.
Now I might find new hope and energy for continue my contribution on this wiki. As you can see, I have added a little bit just yesterday. I have edited [[Nuclear power]] and uploaded the image [Image:nuclear_warning_sign.png]. But the image has gone. May I ask you to have a look? Many Thanks. [[User:Rfc|Rfc]] ([[User talk:Rfc|talk]]) 18:46, 30 August 2017 (BST)

Nuclear power

2017-08-30T06:55:59Z

Rfc: nuclear_warning_sign.png added

[[Image:nuclear_warning_sign.png|right|Nuclear Danger Icon]]

'''Nuclear Power''' is a method of [[energy]] generation. It uses nuclear fuel to produce heat, which is usually transformed into [[electricity]].

Nuclear power has been considered as the preferred energy source for most plans for medium- to long-term human expeditions to [[Mars]]. It does not depend on [[environmental conditions|weather conditions]].

The availability of radioactive resources on Mars is unclear. Due to the vast effort of the nuclear enrichment process the nuclear fuel must be brought from [[Earth]], preventing the [[settlement]] from being [[independence from Earth|independent from Earth]].

The maintenance effort of a legacy nuclear power station requires a huge staff. However, due to Russian plans to build a fully self-contained device on Mars the required maintenance staff comprises only 6 engineers.

==RTG==
[[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (abbr.: RTG) are simple devices. They produce a heat difference, transformed by a [[thermocouple]] to electrical energy. The maintenance effort is low.
However, RTGs do not provide enough power for a base.

==Nuclear reactor==
In a nuclear reactor the heat boils [[water]] to steam. [[turbine|Turbines]] are driven by the steam's pressure, spinning a dynamo to generate electric energy.

==Nuclear heating==
Heating [[greenhouse]]s and other [[building]]s may be done indirectly by the heat of the nuclear fission. The heat can be transported in pipes from the reactor to the buildings. Heat exchangers avoid nuclear pollution of the buildings.

==Open issues==
*What sort of nuclear fuel is needed?
*How long can the described nuclear power stations work without replenishment of nuclear fuel?
*What is known about nuclear resources on Mars?

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3162129.stm BBC: Russia plans Mars nuclear station]

[[Category:Hi-tech]]
[[Category:Energy]]

File:Nuclear warning sign.png

2017-08-30T06:53:54Z

Rfc: Danger icon. Source: User:Rfc has painted this image. category:images

== Summary ==
Danger icon.

Source: [[User:Rfc]] has painted this image.

[[category:images]]

== Licensing ==
{{GPL}}

Pioneer plants

2016-05-06T18:12:00Z

Rfc: point out that this is for greenhouses, not for outdoor

'''Pioneer plants''' (also called ''pioneer species'') can play an important role in colonization of [[Mars]]. Although the plants can not live and grow unter the Martian [[environmental conditions]], they can help establish biological types of [[greenhouse]]s, where they are able to transform [[regolith]] to [[soil]]. Among others the following species may be used:

* [[Marram grass]]
* [[Lupin]]
* [[Fireweed]]
* [[Ground-elder]]

These plants are unassuming with respect to nutrients. They are adapted to ground conditions with low [[microbes|microbial]] activity. For the concept of an [[unmanned setup of a whole settlement]] the pioneer plants will probably be the first life-form on Mars.

==Open issues==
*What sorts of pioneer plants can be combined in a small artificial biosphere? This should include a mixed [[insects|insect]] population.
*An [[experimental setup#soil production|experimental setup]] should be performed to find out, what species are best for soil production.

[[category: plants]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]

Atmospheric processing

2016-03-10T10:35:27Z

Rfc: re-organization of the content to finish the merge

'''Atmospheric processing''' describes the extraction of substances out of the Martian [[atmosphere]] and the usage as raw material for further processing. Unlike surface and sub-surface mining, the atmospheric mining does not require the movement of large amounts of [[regolith]] or rock with heavy machinery, nor is expensive transport per [[rover]] or [[railroad]] necessary. The atmosphere can simply be sucked in through a pipe at every location, and the processing is done inside of [[building]]s. Also, the maintenance of all the mining machinery is in-house, which is a major safety advantage.

== Collection of Atmosphere ==
A device similar to a vacuum pump collects Martian air. The collected gas is compressed to the habitat's internal pressure for easier handling.

== Processing ==
===Compression===
Compression above 5,19 bar allows to liquefy carbon dioxide.

===Distillation===
The atmosphere is cooled to remove water vapor as a condensate. As the gas continues to cool most of the rest of the water vapor is removed as frost. The dry gas is cooled further to remove carbon dioxide
condensate. There will be more carbon dioxide than is needed for industrial purposes so some of it will be expanded to help power the compressors and to cool the incoming gas. Then excess CO2 will be discharged.

==Wanted Substances==
===Dust===
The Martian [[atmosphere]] contains variable amounts of [[dust]], which consists of similar [[minerals]] like [[regolith]]. Electro-static filters may be used to collect the dust.

===Water===
The 0.03 % [[water]] vapor (H2O) is equivalent to about 10 % air humidity after adiabatic compression and cooling to around 1°C. A device similar to an air dehumidifier can be used to extract this water.

===Carbon Dioxide===
[[Carbon dioxide]] is the main part of the Martian atmosphere with 96 %. It can be used for the [[hydrocarbon synthesis]].

===Nitrogen and argon===
The balance of the remaining gas after carbon dioxide condensation contains mostly [[nitrogen]] and [[argon]]. This mixture can serve as a buffer for oxygen to produce a breathable atmosphere, where Carbon monoxide must be catalytically removed.

Nitrogen can be separated out for use as ammonia and nitrates in fertilizer and as nitric acid in industry. Argon is useful for industrial processes that must be performed in an inert atmosphere.

==See also==
*[[Mining]]

[[Category:ISRU]]
[[category: geology]]
[[category: material]]

Mining

2016-03-09T10:29:11Z

Rfc: link to "Atmospheric processing" instead of "Atmospheric mining"

'''Mining''' is the process of fetching raw materials from the Martian [[natural resources]] for further processing. The fetched raw materials are frozen [[water]], [[minerals]], [[ore]] or the thin [[atmosphere]].

==Technology==
Mining is an [[energy]] consuming job. Due to the hostile environment the [[digging machine]]s are supposed to work [[automation|automated]] or remote controlled.

==Surface Mining Methods==
===Strip Mining===
When resources are available close to the surface, a strip mine is the most efficient method of extraction. The layers of [[regolith]] covering the resource are taken away, and the exposed ore is mined. This method is also called open-pit mining.

==Subsurface Mining Methods==
When the natural resource lies far underground, it is far more efficient to dig tunnels to access the ore than to remove the overlaying rock and regolith. Since Mars has only about 38% as much gravity as Earth<ref> McGRAW-HILL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Science & Technology, 8 th edition, vol. 10 (c) 1997 page 527 </ref> people should be able to extend mines to a depth about 2.6 times as deep as on earth without the tunnel collapsing from hydrostatic pressure. This should allow the search for valuable minerals to a depth of more than 5 miles. There are many subsurface mining methods, and they are often used in conjunction with each other.
===Drift Mines===
Drift mining consists of primarily horizontal tunnels. These are most often dug into a hillside.

===Slope Mining===
Slope mining uses diagonal tunnels to access ore.

===Shaft Mining===
Vertical shafts are used in shaft mining.

===Room and Pillar Mining===
In this method, large galleries are dug into the ore. Pillars of ore are left at regular intervals to support the ceiling. After all the ore has been removed, these pillars may be removed through retreat mining, leading to the collapse of the chamber. This collapse may lead to surface subsidence.

===Longwall Mining===
Longwall mining begins with a long horizontal shaft. The roof is held up mechanically by moveable supports. One side of the shaft is mined along its entire length. As this mine progresses, the mechanical supports move forward with the face. The old area of the mine is left unsupported, and allowed to collapse under its own weight, often leading to surface subsidence.

==Emerging galleries==
The [[artificial cave]]s are a nice side effect. They can be used to expand the [[settlement]] with storage rooms, [[house|living rooms]], underground [[greenhouse]]s, gas container for [[energy storage]] or storage of [[:category:chemistry|chemicals]].

==See also==
*[[Atmospheric processing]]

==Reference==
<references/>

[[Category:ISRU]]
[[category: technology]]
[[category: geology]]
[[category: material]]

Atmospheric mining

2016-03-09T10:25:00Z

Rfc: merge with "Atmospheric processing" and redirect

#REDIRECT [[Atmospheric processing]]

Atmospheric processing

2016-03-09T10:23:19Z

Rfc: merging with the article "Atmospheric mining"

'''Atmospheric processing''' is the process of extracting substances out of the Martian [[atmosphere]] and use them as raw material for further processing. Unlike surface and sub-surface mining, the atmospheric mining does not require the movement of large amounts of [[regolith]] or rock with heavy machinery, nor is expensive transport per [[rover]] or [[railroad]] necessary. The atmosphere can simply be sucked in through a pipe at every location, and the processing is done inside of [[building]]s. Also, the maintenance of all the mining machinery is in-house, which is a major safety advantage.

== Collection of atmosphere ==
A device similar to a vacuum pump collects Martian air. The gas is compressed to be able to liquefy carbon dioxide.

===Distillation===
The atmosphere is cooled to remove water vapor as a condensate. As the gas continues to cool most of the rest of the water vapor is removed as frost. The dry gas is cooled further to remove carbon dioxide
condensate. There will be more carbon dioxide than is needed for industrial purposes so some of it will be expanded to help power the compressors and to cool the incoming gas. Then excess CO2 will be discharged.

===Buffer gas for breathing===
The balance of the remaining gas contains mostly [[nitrogen]] and [[argon]] which can be used as mixed as a buffer for oxygen to produce a breathable atmosphere. Carbon monoxide can be catalytically removed.

===Nitrogen and argon===
[[Nitrogen]] can be separated out for use as ammonia and nitrates in fertilizer and as nitric acid in industry. [[Argon]] is useful for industrial processes that must be performed in an inert atmosphere.

==Wanted Substances==
===Dust===
The Martian [[atmosphere]] contains variable amounts of [[dust]], which consists of similar [[minerals]] like [[regolith]]. Electro-static filters may be used to collect the dust.

===Water===
The 0.03 % [[water]] vapor (H2O) is equivalent to about 10 % air humidity after adiabatic compression and cooling to around 1°C. A device similar to an air dehumidifier can be used to extract this water.

===Carbon Dioxide===
[[Carbon dioxide]] is the main part of the Martian atmosphere with 96 %. It can be used for the [[hydrocarbon synthesis]].

==See also==
*[[Mining]]

[[Category:ISRU]]
[[category: geology]]
[[category: material]]

Mining

2016-03-09T10:20:15Z

Rfc: cat+

'''Mining''' is the process of fetching raw materials from the Martian [[natural resources]] for further processing. The fetched raw materials are frozen [[water]], [[minerals]], [[ore]] or the thin [[atmosphere]].

==Technology==
Mining is an [[energy]] consuming job. Due to the hostile environment the [[digging machine]]s are supposed to work [[automation|automated]] or remote controlled.

==Surface Mining Methods==
===Strip Mining===
When resources are available close to the surface, a strip mine is the most efficient method of extraction. The layers of [[regolith]] covering the resource are taken away, and the exposed ore is mined. This method is also called open-pit mining.

==Subsurface Mining Methods==
When the natural resource lies far underground, it is far more efficient to dig tunnels to access the ore than to remove the overlaying rock and regolith. Since Mars has only about 38% as much gravity as Earth<ref> McGRAW-HILL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Science & Technology, 8 th edition, vol. 10 (c) 1997 page 527 </ref> people should be able to extend mines to a depth about 2.6 times as deep as on earth without the tunnel collapsing from hydrostatic pressure. This should allow the search for valuable minerals to a depth of more than 5 miles. There are many subsurface mining methods, and they are often used in conjunction with each other.
===Drift Mines===
Drift mining consists of primarily horizontal tunnels. These are most often dug into a hillside.

===Slope Mining===
Slope mining uses diagonal tunnels to access ore.

===Shaft Mining===
Vertical shafts are used in shaft mining.

===Room and Pillar Mining===
In this method, large galleries are dug into the ore. Pillars of ore are left at regular intervals to support the ceiling. After all the ore has been removed, these pillars may be removed through retreat mining, leading to the collapse of the chamber. This collapse may lead to surface subsidence.

===Longwall Mining===
Longwall mining begins with a long horizontal shaft. The roof is held up mechanically by moveable supports. One side of the shaft is mined along its entire length. As this mine progresses, the mechanical supports move forward with the face. The old area of the mine is left unsupported, and allowed to collapse under its own weight, often leading to surface subsidence.

==Emerging galleries==
The [[artificial cave]]s are a nice side effect. They can be used to expand the [[settlement]] with storage rooms, [[house|living rooms]], underground [[greenhouse]]s, gas container for [[energy storage]] or storage of [[:category:chemistry|chemicals]].

== Atmospheric Mining==
The Martian [[atmosphere]] might be used to get [[dust]], [[water]], [[carbon]] and other gaseous substances. See main article ''"[[Atmospheric mining]]"''.

==Reference==
<references/>

[[Category:ISRU]]
[[category: technology]]
[[category: geology]]
[[category: material]]

Life support

2016-02-22T20:51:40Z

Rfc: /* Buffering of the gases */ headline of the paragraph more compact

[[Image:MultiLayeredDomeSettlement.gif|thumb|right|It's not simple to keep humans alive outside their home planet!]]
'''Live support systems''' are an essential and necessary part of a Martian [[settlement]], since the natural Martian [[environment]] does not allow [[human]] beings to survive.

== Requirements ==

* [[Oxygen]] must be added to the breathing [[air]] inside the [[habitat]].
* [[CO2|CO2]] must be removed.
* Food must be provided.
* The temperature inside the habitat must be comfortable.

== ISS-like systems ==

The life support system on the [[ISS]] is optimized to low weight. It must be fuelled with large amounts of [[energy]] and it requires a constant replenishment with consumables.

== Near-natural systems ==
[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

On [[Mars]] we will not be able to maintain a life support system that needs consumables. The alternative is a near-natural [[carbon cycle]] with the growing of [[food]] and producing [[oxygen]] at the same time.

The challenge is the day and night rhythm as well as the lasting [[dust storms]]. Oxygen can only produced with light, either [[sunlight]] or [[lighting|artificial light]]. During the night or during a dust storm there is not enough sunlight, neither for direct lighting for the plants nor for [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] powered [[electricity|electric]] light. The [[Biosphere 2]] experiment has shown significant deviations from good oxygen conditions due to the day and night rhythm.

The first Martian settlement will probably be much smaller than Biosphere 2, making it even harder to keep a constant oxygen level. This article discusses solutions to mitigate this issue.

=== Buffering the gases ===

Big tanks of [[water]] may be used to buffer some amount of oxygen as well as CO2, since those gases are soluble in water according to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law Henry's law]. A good side effect is the heat capacity of the water, helping to keep a comfortable temperature in the settlement.

=== Constant artificial lighting ===

Parts of the oxygen producing [[greenhouse]]s may be lit at night, which requires [[energy storage|stored electrical energy]]. The stored energy must be large enough to cover a few months of dust storms, whereas [[wind turbine]]s may help to produce part of the needed energy.

==Open Issues==
* What is necessary to build such a water buffer? How much water is needed? How can the active surface of the water be extended (rinsing over lava stone, spraying in the air, etc.) and what amount of energy is needed to keep this technology running?

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]

Life support

2016-01-14T19:53:24Z

Rfc: illustration added

[[Image:MultiLayeredDomeSettlement.gif|thumb|right|It's not simple to keep humans alive outside their home planet!]]
'''Live support systems''' are an essential and necessary part of a Martian [[settlement]], since the natural Martian [[environment]] does not allow [[human]] beings to survive.

== Requirements ==

* [[Oxygen]] must be added to the breathing [[air]] inside the [[habitat]].
* [[CO2|CO2]] must be removed.
* Food must be provided.
* The temperature inside the habitat must be comfortable.

== ISS-like systems ==

The life support system on the [[ISS]] is optimized to low weight. It must be fuelled with large amounts of [[energy]] and it requires a constant replenishment with consumables.

== Near-natural systems ==
[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

On [[Mars]] we will not be able to maintain a life support system that needs consumables. The alternative is a near-natural [[carbon cycle]] with the growing of [[food]] and producing [[oxygen]] at the same time.

The challenge is the day and night rhythm as well as the lasting [[dust storms]]. Oxygen can only produced with light, either [[sunlight]] or [[lighting|artificial light]]. During the night or during a dust storm there is not enough sunlight, neither for direct lighting for the plants nor for [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] powered [[electricity|electric]] light. The [[Biosphere 2]] experiment has shown significant deviations from good oxygen conditions due to the day and night rhythm.

The first Martian settlement will probably be much smaller than Biosphere 2, making it even harder to keep a constant oxygen level. This article discusses solutions to mitigate this issue.

=== Buffering of the gases ===

Big tanks of [[water]] may be used to buffer some amount of oxygen as well as CO2, since those gases are soluble in water according to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law Henry's law]. A good side effect is the heat capacity of the water, helping to keep a comfortable temperature in the settlement.

=== Constant artificial lighting ===

Parts of the oxygen producing [[greenhouse]]s may be lit at night, which requires [[energy storage|stored electrical energy]]. The stored energy must be large enough to cover a few months of dust storms, whereas [[wind turbine]]s may help to produce part of the needed energy.

==Open Issues==
* What is necessary to build such a water buffer? How much water is needed? How can the active surface of the water be extended (rinsing over lava stone, spraying in the air, etc.) and what amount of energy is needed to keep this technology running?

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]

Plants

2016-01-03T13:37:03Z

Rfc: /* Significance to Martian Colonization */

[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

'''Plants''' are multicellular organisms that gain [[energy]] through [[photosynthesis]], though some species are parasitic or carnivorous. Unlike [[:category:animals|animals]], [[fungi]] and other [[microbes]], plants have cell walls made from [[cellulose]].

==Significance to Martian Colonization==
Plants are a vital source of [[food]], [[:category:chemistry|chemicals]], and [[List of Construction Materials|construction materials]] such as [[wood]], [[straw]] and [[bamboo]]. Also, a well balanced [[carbon cycle]] delivers [[oxygen]] for breathing.

==Plant Selection==
[[Greenhouse]] space and resources in a [[settlement]] are limited, and must be used carefully. Plants need to be selected carefully in order to provide the highest return on the resource investment.

===Ease of Propagation===
Selected plants must be easy to propagate through seeds, roots, or cuttings.

===Hybrid vs Natural Strains===
Hybrid plants, while common in terrestrial [[agriculture]], are less desirable than pure strains. Hybrids are often sterile, and those that do reproduce sexually yield offspring that resemble the original strains more than the hybrid. Any hybrids grown in settlements will likely be propagated asexually through cuttings.

===Genetic Diversity===
Plants that reproduce sexually need enough genetically distinct individuals to prevent harmful [[inbreeding depression|inbreeding]]. Though disease and parasites will likely be left behind, there is always a risk of accidental exposure, or even the emergence of new diseases. A genetically diverse population has historically fared better than one with low diversity.

===Ease of Farming===
Greenhouses provide residents a great deal of control over the growing environment. Even so, certain plants must be excluded due to the difficulties involved in their growth. Many [[trees]], for instance, grow too tall, and require extensive root systems that are impractical for small greenhouses.

===Value===
Plants should be selected based on the value they provide to the settlement. This could be in the form of [[food]], [[natural fiber]], chemicals, or even just raw [[biomass]]. Some plants, such as flax, provide multiple benefits.

{| style="font-size:8pt;margin:0 ; clear:both;padding:4px 4px 4px 4px;background:#98FB98;border: solid 1px #006400;width:500px" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=green
! <big>Candidate Plants</big> !! <big>for Martian Greenhouses</big> !!
|-
! Common Name !! Scientific Name !! Uses
|-
! [[Aloe]]
| ''Aloe Vera, Aloe Barbadensis'' || Medicine
|-
! [[Bamboo]]
| ''Bambuseae'' || Construction, Fiber, and Food
|-
! [[Chamomile]]
| ''Matricaria Recutita'' || Tea and Medicine
|-
! [[Flax]]
| ''Linum Usitatissimum'' || Fiber, Oil, and Food
|-
! [[Hemp]]
| ''Cannabis Sativa'' || Fiber and Oil
|-
! [[Luffa]]
| ''Luffa Acutangula, Luffa Aegyptiaca'' || Food and Natural Sponge
|-
! [[Oats]]
| ''Avena sativa'' || Food and Skin Care
|-
! [[Quinoa]]
| ''Chenopodium Quinoa'' || Food
|-
! [[Soybean]]
| ''Glycine Max'' || Food and Oil
|-
! [[Water hyacinth]]
| ''Eichhornia Crassipes'' || Waste Water Treatment and Biomass
|-
! [[Wheat]]
| ''Triticum'' || Food
|-
! [[Rice]]
| ''Oryza Sativa, Oryza Glaberrima'' || Food and Edible Paper
|}

[[category:plants]]
[[category:biospherics]]
[[category:greenhouse]]

Life support

2016-01-03T13:25:46Z

Rfc: picture added

'''Live support systems''' are an essential and necessary part of a Martian [[settlement]], since the natural Martian [[environment]] does not allow [[human]] beings to survive.

== Requirements ==

* [[Oxygen]] must be added to the breathing [[air]] inside the [[habitat]].
* [[CO2|CO2]] must be removed.
* Food must be provided.
* The temperature inside the habitat must be comfortable.

== ISS-like systems ==

The life support system on the [[ISS]] is optimized to low weight. It must be fuelled with large amounts of [[energy]] and it requires a constant replenishment with consumables.

== Near-natural systems ==
[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

On [[Mars]] we will not be able to maintain a life support system that needs consumables. The alternative is a near-natural [[carbon cycle]] with the growing of [[food]] and producing [[oxygen]] at the same time.

The challenge is the day and night rhythm as well as the lasting [[dust storms]]. Oxygen can only produced with light, either [[sunlight]] or [[lighting|artificial light]]. During the night or during a dust storm there is not enough sunlight, neither for direct lighting for the plants nor for [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] powered [[electricity|electric]] light. The [[Biosphere 2]] experiment has shown significant deviations from good oxygen conditions due to the day and night rhythm.

The first Martian settlement will probably be much smaller than Biosphere 2, making it even harder to keep a constant oxygen level. This article discusses solutions to mitigate this issue.

=== Buffering of the gases ===

Big tanks of [[water]] may be used to buffer some amount of oxygen as well as CO2, since those gases are soluble in water according to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law Henry's law]. A good side effect is the heat capacity of the water, helping to keep a comfortable temperature in the settlement.

=== Constant artificial lighting ===

Parts of the oxygen producing [[greenhouse]]s may be lit at night, which requires [[energy storage|stored electrical energy]]. The stored energy must be large enough to cover a few months of dust storms, whereas [[wind turbine]]s may help to produce part of the needed energy.

==Open Issues==
* What is necessary to build such a water buffer? How much water is needed? How can the active surface of the water be extended (rinsing over lava stone, spraying in the air, etc.) and what amount of energy is needed to keep this technology running?

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]

Plants

2016-01-03T13:24:25Z

Rfc: picture added

[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

'''Plants''' are multicellular organisms that gain [[energy]] through [[photosynthesis]], though some species are parasitic or carnivorous. Unlike [[:category:animals|animals]], [[fungi]] and other [[microbes]], plants have cell walls made from [[cellulose]].

==Significance to Martian Colonization==
Plants are a vital source of [[food]], [[:category:chemistry|chemicals]], and [[List of Construction Materials|construction materials]] such as [[wood]] and [[bamboo]].

==Plant Selection==
[[Greenhouse]] space and resources in a [[settlement]] are limited, and must be used carefully. Plants need to be selected carefully in order to provide the highest return on the resource investment.

===Ease of Propagation===
Selected plants must be easy to propagate through seeds, roots, or cuttings.

===Hybrid vs Natural Strains===
Hybrid plants, while common in terrestrial [[agriculture]], are less desirable than pure strains. Hybrids are often sterile, and those that do reproduce sexually yield offspring that resemble the original strains more than the hybrid. Any hybrids grown in settlements will likely be propagated asexually through cuttings.

===Genetic Diversity===
Plants that reproduce sexually need enough genetically distinct individuals to prevent harmful [[inbreeding depression|inbreeding]]. Though disease and parasites will likely be left behind, there is always a risk of accidental exposure, or even the emergence of new diseases. A genetically diverse population has historically fared better than one with low diversity.

===Ease of Farming===
Greenhouses provide residents a great deal of control over the growing environment. Even so, certain plants must be excluded due to the difficulties involved in their growth. Many [[trees]], for instance, grow too tall, and require extensive root systems that are impractical for small greenhouses.

===Value===
Plants should be selected based on the value they provide to the settlement. This could be in the form of [[food]], [[natural fiber]], chemicals, or even just raw [[biomass]]. Some plants, such as flax, provide multiple benefits.

{| style="font-size:8pt;margin:0 ; clear:both;padding:4px 4px 4px 4px;background:#98FB98;border: solid 1px #006400;width:500px" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=green
! <big>Candidate Plants</big> !! <big>for Martian Greenhouses</big> !!
|-
! Common Name !! Scientific Name !! Uses
|-
! [[Aloe]]
| ''Aloe Vera, Aloe Barbadensis'' || Medicine
|-
! [[Bamboo]]
| ''Bambuseae'' || Construction, Fiber, and Food
|-
! [[Chamomile]]
| ''Matricaria Recutita'' || Tea and Medicine
|-
! [[Flax]]
| ''Linum Usitatissimum'' || Fiber, Oil, and Food
|-
! [[Hemp]]
| ''Cannabis Sativa'' || Fiber and Oil
|-
! [[Luffa]]
| ''Luffa Acutangula, Luffa Aegyptiaca'' || Food and Natural Sponge
|-
! [[Oats]]
| ''Avena sativa'' || Food and Skin Care
|-
! [[Quinoa]]
| ''Chenopodium Quinoa'' || Food
|-
! [[Soybean]]
| ''Glycine Max'' || Food and Oil
|-
! [[Water hyacinth]]
| ''Eichhornia Crassipes'' || Waste Water Treatment and Biomass
|-
! [[Wheat]]
| ''Triticum'' || Food
|-
! [[Rice]]
| ''Oryza Sativa, Oryza Glaberrima'' || Food and Edible Paper
|}

[[category:plants]]
[[category:biospherics]]
[[category:greenhouse]]

Life support

2015-10-30T21:20:41Z

Rfc: Requirements added

'''Live support systems''' are an essential and necessary part of a Martian [[settlement]], since the natural Martian [[environment]] does not allow [[human]] beings to survive.

== Requirements ==

* [[Oxygen]] must be added to the breathing [[air]] inside the [[habitat]].
* [[CO2|CO2]] must be removed.
* Food must be provided.
* The temperature inside the habitat must be comfortable.

== ISS-like systems ==

The life support system on the [[ISS]] is optimized to low weight. It must be fuelled with large amounts of [[energy]] and it requires a constant replenishment with consumables.

== Near-natural systems ==

On [[Mars]] we will not be able to maintain a life support system that needs consumables. The alternative is a near-natural [[carbon cycle]] with the growing of [[food]] and producing [[oxygen]] at the same time.

The challenge is the day and night rhythm as well as the lasting [[dust storms]]. Oxygen can only produced with light, either [[sunlight]] or [[lighting|artificial light]]. During the night or during a dust storm there is not enough sunlight, neither for direct lighting for the plants nor for [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] powered [[electricity|electric]] light. The [[Biosphere 2]] experiment has shown significant deviations from good oxygen conditions due to the day and night rhythm.

The first Martian settlement will probably be much smaller than Biosphere 2, making it even harder to keep a constant oxygen level. This article discusses solutions to mitigate this issue.

=== Buffering of the gases ===

Big tanks of [[water]] may be used to buffer some amount of oxygen as well as CO2, since those gases are soluble in water according to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law Henry's law]. A good side effect is the heat capacity of the water, helping to keep a comfortable temperature in the settlement.

=== Constant artificial lighting ===

Parts of the oxygen producing [[greenhouse]]s may be lit at night, which requires [[energy storage|stored electrical energy]]. The stored energy must be large enough to cover a few months of dust storms, whereas [[wind turbine]]s may help to produce part of the needed energy.

==Open Issues==
* What is necessary to build such a water buffer? How much water is needed? How can the active surface of the water be extended (rinsing over lava stone, spraying in the air, etc.) and what amount of energy is needed to keep this technology running?

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]

Carbon cycle

2015-10-30T21:02:09Z

Rfc: formulae added

The natural '''Carbon Cycle''' describes the way of energetic interaction of [[plants]] and [[animals]] (or [[human]]s).

[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

The [[CO2|CO2]] is consumed by the [[food]] plants. This is part of the carbon cycle, assumed that all food is grown by food plants in the [[colony]]. All [[hydrocarbon]] intake is exhaled as CO2 after digestion and metabolizing. Exactly the same amount of CO2 is inhaled by the food plants and metabolized to hydrocarbons. The carbon is neither created nor destroyed anywhere in the cycle.

The photo synthesis basically creates glucose from CO2 and water:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6

The settlers basically metabolize the glucose and release CO2 and water:
C6H12O6 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]

Equipment for autonomous growth

2015-10-30T15:44:17Z

Rfc: link+

What equipment will settlers on [[Mars]] need to be really [[Independence from Earth‎|independent from Earth]] on the long term? This article wants to define the '''Equipment for Autonomous Growth''' to enable a [[colony]] to thrive, entirely based upon [[local resources]].

The initial settlement on Mars will be built with technology from [[Earth]], involving space travel, radio link, etc. Hopefully, this initial settlement is completed with the ability to sustain itself.

In case the support from Earth stops some day due to financial or political issues, the settlers are completely on their own. In order to survive, the settlement must be equipped with technology that allows life to continue indefinitely. A growing population requires the settlement to grow as well. The limited material from Earth will be used up quickly. Unlimited growth requires technology to exploit Martian resources to build everything required.

Even if Earth's economy is normal, launch costs from earth may remain very high. Even if only economic self-sufficiency (monetary break-even or profit) is a goal, imports may remain very expensive and so there is a strong economic incentive to substitute Martian-made goods for earth-made ones.

Substituting native manufactures for imports is a great challenge because technology since the Industrial Revolution has depended on a global economy that now includes billions of workers. Factories that specialize in making one particular kind of good often employ hundreds of workers directly, but tens of thousands to millions of workers indirectly to provide parts and sub-parts and raw materials for all these, and to produce still more goods and services to meet the needs of all these workers. As Adam Smith wrote,
:''"Observe the accommodation of the most common artificer or day-laborer in a civilized and thriving country, and you will perceive that the number of people of whose industry a part, though but a small part, has been employed in procuring him this accommodation, exceeds all computation. The woollen coat, for example, which covers the day laborer, as coarse and rough as it may appear, is the produce of the joint labor of a great multitude of workmen."''

The initial prototypes and test articles of modern products were often made by fewer people in a lab, using more flexible manufacturing equipment, so in principle the work can be done by fewer people. However, the production rate per person, i.e. overall economic efficiency, goes way down as batch sizes decline. To minimize this, and to minimize the dependence of machines themselves on a global economy, most processes and pieces of equipment, from machine tools to finished products, will have to be radically redesigned in order to be made on Mars. For a medium-sized colony, [[:category:Lo-tech|Lo-tech]] processes may be redesigned for a small workforce, namely [[pneumatics]], [[hydraulics]], and so on. A small colony (100 to 10,000 people, the size of a frontier town) will probably rely mostly on [[:category:Small-scale-tech|small-scale-tech]] based on traditional craft industries such as [[brick|brick-making]], [[blacksmith|blacksmithing]], [[smelting]], [[glass|glass-blowing]], etc. A small "ecosystem" of equipment that is collectively self-replicating, such as is the goal of RepRap (see [[3D Printer]]), could greatly help in the task of substituting for imports from Earth. [[shared_componenting|Shared components]] can reduce labor and tooling costs.

The ability of autonomous growth requires a network of several technologies with each of them depending on other parts of the network. Every piece of the network needs maintenance and must be maintained solely with local technology and materials. If one single piece needs imports from Earth, the whole network is not self-sufficient. The creation of such a complete network can not be done all at once. To give a Martian colony a start, it requires some vital technology for [[food]] production and [[life support]] from the very beginning. So, the colony starts with imported technology from Earth (as is planned by [[Mars One]]), and non of the parts may be replaceable by locally produced spare parts. But then, step by step, additional small production lines based on local technology and materials are established. While the initial technologies had to be optimized in weight for Earth-to-Mars transport, these new technologies may well be bigger and more heavy, but can be built with local materials. [[Steel]] might be used instead of [[aluminum]], [[sintered regolith]] may be used for housing of stationary machines instead of carbon fibre plastics.

==Mining equipment==
The most critical technology is [[mining]]. It provides almost every [[:category:material|material]] the growing colony needs: [[water]], [[iron]], [[silicon]], etc.

==Construction technique==
A growing colony needs to build more and larger [[building]]s. An initial set of machines, measuring devices, formwork etc. should be brought to Mars. Advanced [[3D Printer]]s can be used to fabricate items on Mars. Construction complexity may be averted by the use of [[Shared componenting‎]].

==Energy==
[[Energy]] is one of the [[crucial issues]] in a Martian colony. The surplus energy, that is what is left after [[food]] production and machinery maintenance, can be used to expand the colony. Both mining and processing of additional construction material as well as drilling of [[artificial cave]]s consume large amounts of energy.

==Automation==
There are many processes to maintain in an artificial [[habitat]], requiring [[automation]] technology. [[Electronics]], [[mechanics]], [[hydraulics]] and [[pneumatics]] are considered.

==Computers==
Computers are found in anything from watches and microwaves to cellphones and personal computers, at least in industrialized societies on Earth. One might think, computers are required in establishing a modern colony. Surely they are a great help for any other technology, but they are not inevitable.

==Internet==
The access to Earth's [[internet]] is definitely not necessary for an autonomous colony, but it helps to exchange technological, scientific and cultural news, which might be beneficial for both Mars and Earth.

==Food production==
Since [[sunlight]] is not as bright as on Earth, there may be a need for [[Greenhouse|greenhouses]] with [[solar concentrator|mirrors that concentrate the sunshine]]. The construction of [[biotechnology|biotechnological factories]] can help to provide enough [[food]] for the settlers.

[[Mars One]] plans to start with LED-lit greenhouses. To make this a long term autonomous concept, the LEDs need to be produced locally.

==Synthetic materials==
Almost any technology requires a large quantity of [[synthetic materials]]: plastics, oil, acids, etc., that is produced by [[:Category:Chemistry|chemical processes]].

Synthetic materials will be needed for the repair and production of vacuum and dust-proof clothing (Mars suits or [[space suit]]s). This protective clothing will wear out, so manufacture of replacements will be an early priority for a colony.

==Reproductive Technology==
Every machine and every gadget has a [[wear lifespan|limited lifetime]]. It must be replaced periodically to keep the function alive. As a principle, the equipment brought to Mars must be constructed simple enough to allow a repair and duplication from local resources. The periodic repair and maintenance process must not consume more material, energy and time than the colony can afford. The usage of [[hi-tech versus lo-tech|Lo-tech instead of hi-tech]] for vital systems is a possible solution. [[Recycling]] helps too.

===Example: Manufacture and repair of digging machines===
[[Digging machine]]s produce [[ore]]. The [[smelter]] transforms ore to iron. A [[steel plant]] makes [[steel]] out of the iron. And the steel must be forged and finished to parts for digging machines. Is the circle closed? Digging machines used in modern mines on Earth contain thousands of non-steel parts. A steel plant on earth requires at least hundreds of workers directly, and many more if we count the workers needed to build the equipment and the parts for that equipment and structures of the steel mill, to mine and transport the iron ore, and to satisfy the very diverse products and services expected by steel workers as consumers. Similarly assembly plants for digging machines typically employ hundreds of workers directly and tens of thousands indirectly. For colonies with fewer people, a much simpler "frontier town" loop is that a [[blacksmith]] produces tools and simple hand-powered machines and replacement parts for mining, and a small-scale smelter converts the ore to the iron bars worked by the blacksmith. A [[brick]]-maker makes furnaces for the smelter and blacksmith. With crafts of a self-sufficient frontier town on an Earthly frontier the circle has been closed by each of these entities supplying the tools and inputs of the other.

This simple input-output analysis of the ideal frontier town serves as a model for the far more sophisticated input-output analysis that is needed for modern technologies with their large number of parts made by a very large and wide variety of machines and people, whenever that technology is to be used in an autonomous colony. Far more than just the actual technology of the historical frontier town will be needed for Mars. In the historical frontier town air supply and sewage disposal came free courtesy of the Earthly natural ecology. On Mars the air supply, sewage disposal, and food will come from a more complicated interconnected system of systems that must be overseen by people and must be largely automated to accomplish all functions with a limited number of human workers. The autonomous Mars economy will require more than just traditional craftsmen, but the simple self-sufficient craft economy makes a very useful starting point for designing an autonomous Martian economy and the radically different technology that will be required for same. By the time we are done with our analysis this economy and its technology will likely be radically different both from the traditional frontier town and from the modern technology with which we are familiar.

===Example: Repair of solar panels===
[[Solar panel]]s provide [[electricity]], which will be used to create more photo-voltaic cells. High [[radiation]] levels on the Martian surface reduce the lifespan of the panels. Replacement becomes necessary after 10 to 20 years. Since the production of new cells is an energy consuming process, the cells must be able to produce significantly more energy during their lifespan than their own production consumes. The production technology must be feasible in a small Martian colony, that is, it must fit in a small room and allows pure manual handling. A big factory with automated production lines is not possible within the first decades of the colony.

===Example: Repair of electronics===
The most complex thing to replace is, perhaps, the computer. It needs high-tech processes and special substances to make all the electronic devices within a computer. There are few ways for coping with this challenge: abstain from any [[electronics]] on Mars; find a way to produce simple electronics that can be made from local Martian resources or stockpile critical materials such as silicon single crystals and high purity chemical dopants that would be needed if Mars were to shift to self-supply of integrated circuitry. It would take a long time for a small industrial society to consume a hundred kilograms of such strategic reserves if Earthly computer chips became unavailable.

==See also==
*[[Autonomous colony]]

[[Category: Technology]]
[[Category: Concepts]]

Mars Garden Wins Gold

2015-10-30T15:41:39Z

Rfc: link+

==Mars Garden Wins Gold at London's Chelsea Flower Show (MarsHome.org)==
Posted Tuesday, June 5, 2007 on [http://www.marshome.org MarsHome.org]

[[Image:Chelseagarden.png|thumb|right|200px|Bradstone and Sarah Eberle were awarded a Gold Medal and Best in Show by judges at the RHS Chelsea Flower Show for this Mars Garden design.]]

==Article text==

''Imagine. You have established the first human settlement on Mars. All the essential features of the hab have been designed and built. You have organized the sleeping quarters so you and your team are able to rest in privacy. You have successfully tapped into a source of water. Mechanized processes are in motion, you hear the hum of robots creating masonry, cutting plastics and extracting chemicals from piles of Martian soil. Supplies are plentiful since the arrival of cargo the day before. Everything is great. Everything is going according to plan.''

''But, inside the hab, the smell of iron and sulfur on your hands, surrounded by plastic and aluminum, a deep feeling of homesickness and disorientation is distracting you from this historic achievement...''

The human need for familiarity and aesthetic pleasures will be amplified for the first explorers of Mars, lack of which may cause depression, mental anxiety and physical stress. Primarily, this will cause problems for mission operations, but on a deeper level, rooted insecurities may cause irreversible damage to the embryonic Mars community.

At a time when basic human needs are being researched by the [[Mars Homestead Project]]™, a design of a Martian garden won gold at the prestigious Chelsea Flower Show in London last week. The annual event, organized by the UK's Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), is attended by the best designers, gardeners and specialists worldwide, so this award is especially significant for future manned exploration of the Red Planet. The designer, Sarah Eberle, created her garden ("600 Days with Bradstone" – named after the hypothetical 600 days of an astronaut's first mission to Mars and the sponsor, Bradstone) with the "psychological importance of man's relationship with his environment" in mind.

:"''We had to make many assumptions, but everything in the garden is based on real science.''" – Sarah Eberle

The designer and her team researched the science behind future manned settlements on Mars and drew up a list of important characteristics a Martian garden must have. The team liaised with the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) and the British Science Museum for eight years to arrive at a garden that could be worked into the design of Mars habitats considering the psychological effects of spending long periods in space. Assuming a domed structure, the garden features plants that will be familiar to the settlers to give them a "sense of home" and uses rocks similar to those that could be excavated on Mars.

:"''You have to consider colour, water and plant longevity. Also, how would someone feel for 600 days in space? I thought the feeling of seeing something growing would be most important.''" - Sarah Eberle

Besides creating a refuge for the men and women in the Mars settlement, the garden may be used to cultivate food and provide water, all adding to the sense of well-being the settlers will need. In the long-term, [[life support]] systems will need to be supplemented or superseded by natural sources, therefore gardens such as this will be a vital addition to any hab to produce oxygen and other essential substances for use in medicines and construction (see Bamboo and plastic bench concept). The RHS award site states: "Planting has been chosen based on research that suggests the varieties could be grown on Mars; plants include, coffee, wheat and olive oil for diet and opium, poppy and aloha for medicinal needs." Luxuries such as chocolate may be synthesised by growing carob. Calendula - for color, nutrition and medicine - may also be produced.

An interesting addition is the water geyser in the center of the garden. Based on an Alaskan model, permafrost below the Mars garden will be gently heated, producing an up flow of liquid water. A fine mist will add to the scene and the up flowing water can be fed through a system of pipes, irrigating the garden. An aesthetically pleasing and practical feature.

:"''It brings it all home why I go through this torture and pain, for such a sweet moment as this, I tell my daughters never to stop dreaming, because sometimes your dreams really do come true.''" – Sarah Eberle

''Imagine. After a grueling day hiking over the alien landscape, maintaining mankind’s presence on Mars, you return to your hab exhausted. You enjoy a hot meal prepared from fresh vegetables and herbs. You make your way into the garden to relax and chat about the day’s events with your team, listening to splashing water and smelling the terrestrial flowers coming into bloom...''

==Further reading==

* [http://www.marshome.org/archives/2007/06/mars_garden_win.php Permalink to original article]
* [http://600dayswithbradstone.co.uk/the_designer.aspx Sarah's Space Log]
* [http://www.rhs.org.uk/chelsea/2007/exhibitors/showgardens/bradstone.asp "600 Days with Bradstone" garden information]
* [http://600dayswithbradstone.co.uk "600 Days with Bradstone" project site]
* [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM70N9RR1F_index_0.html ESA project site]

[[category:Essays]]

Carbon cycle

2015-10-30T15:38:38Z

Rfc: cat+

The natural '''Carbon Cycle''' describes the way of energetic interaction of [[plants]] and [[animals]].

[[Image:carbon_cycle_simplified.png|thumb|right|300px|The Carbon Cycle (simplified)]]

The [[CO2|CO2]] is consumed by the [[food]] plants. This is part of the carbon cycle, assumed that all food is grown by food plants in the [[colony]]. All [[hydrocarbon]] intake is exhaled as CO2 after digestion and metabolizing. Exactly the same amount of CO2 is inhaled by the food plants and metabolized to hydrocarbons. The carbon is neither created nor destroyed anywhere in the cycle.

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]

Life support

2015-10-30T15:30:12Z

Rfc: /* Near-natural systems */ challenges and solutions

'''Live support systems''' are an essential and necessary part of a Martian [[settlement]], since the natural Martian [[environment]] does not allow human beings to survive.

== ISS-like systems ==

The life support system on the [[ISS]] is optimized to low weight. It must be fuelled with large amounts of [[energy]] and it requires a constant replenishment with consumables.

== Near-natural systems ==

On [[Mars]] we will not be able to maintain a life support system that needs consumables. The alternative is a near-natural [[carbon cycle]] with the growing of [[food]] and producing [[oxygen]] at the same time.

The challenge is the day and night rhythm as well as the lasting [[dust storms]]. Oxygen can only produced with light, either [[sunlight]] or [[lighting|artificial light]]. During the night or during a dust storm there is not enough sunlight, neither for direct lighting for the plants nor for [[photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] powered [[electricity|electric]] light. The [[Biosphere 2]] experiment has shown significant deviations from good oxygen conditions due to the day and night rhythm.

The first Martian settlement will probably be much smaller than Biosphere 2, making it even harder to keep a constant oxygen level. This article discusses solutions to mitigate this issue.

=== Buffering of the gases ===

Big tanks of [[water]] may be used to buffer some amount of oxygen as well as [[CO2|CO2]], since those gases are soluble in water according to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law Henry's law]. A good side effect is the heat capacity of the water, helping to keep a comfortable temperature in the settlement.

=== Constant artificial lighting ===

Parts of the oxygen producing [[greenhouse]]s may be lit at night, which requires [[energy storage|stored electrical energy]]. The stored energy must be large enough to cover a few months of dust storms, whereas [[wind turbine]]s may help to produce part of the needed energy.

==Open Issues==
* What is necessary to build such a water buffer? How much water is needed? How can the active surface of the water be extended (rinsing over lava stone, spraying in the air, etc.) and what amount of energy is needed to keep this technology running?

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]

Food

2015-10-27T20:52:09Z

Rfc: /* Local Production Methods */ link to Carbon cycle

[[Image:raw_food_mix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A mix of fresh raw vegetarian food.]]

The amount of '''Food''' for [[human]] beings that can be brought from [[Earth]] to [[Mars]] is limited, and the logistics of a continued food transport for the long term is [[Financial effort estimation|expensive]]. Especially an [[autonomous colony]] needs it's own food production. Reasons for this are cost reduction and the achievement of [[independence from Earth]]. Last but not least, the own food can be of higher quality and fresh, including a natural mix of [[vitamins]] and [[minerals and trace elements in food|minerals]].

==Food that can be brought from Earth==
*Several varieties of dehydrated food.
*Natural food that contains large amounts of fat and [[carbohydrate]]s, such as nuts.
*Concentrated fruit juice.
*Light weight, high energy foods with a long shelf-life.

==Local Production Methods==
*[[:category:plants|Vegetable]] can be grown in [[greenhouse]]s or on [[green wall|green walls]] in order to close the [[carbon cycle]].
*Proteins, fat and carbohydrates can be produced by a [[biotechnology|biotechnological factory]]
*[[In-vitro meat]]
*[[:category:animals|Animals]], such as chicken or [[fish]], may be raised in sections of greenhouses.
:*It must be taken into account that the production of 1 kg meat requires 7 to 16 kg of vegetable matter.<ref>[http://www.situations.org.uk/_uploaded_pdfs/KateThompsonwhatyoucandoresource.pdf Kate Thompson: What you can do resource - facts and figures about resource consumption for food production.]</ref>
:*In addition, it takes 2000 to 3000 litres of [[water]] to produce 1 kg of meat, it only takes 100 litres of water to grow 1 kg of grain. Water will be a very valuable commodity on Mars, so the first generation of settlers may well be vegetarian by necessity.
*Growing [[insects]] and their larvea (e.g. flour worms or [[flies|fly maggots]]) can provide valuable proteins and might consume just [[waste biomass recycling|waste biomass‎]].
*[[Algae]]
*Some food (possibly [[Genetic engineering|genetically modified]]) may be grown in the Martian atmosphere. Results from the Phoenix lander indicate that some vegetables may be grown in caves safe from radiation.

==Nutrition and Energy Calculations==
Assuming we have no genetically modified plants for the Martian colony we can only try to provide optimized conditions in the greenhouse for maximization of harvest. The following calculation is, therefore, based upon terrestrial agricultural figures.

===Potatoes===
Under best conditions on Earth it is possible to grow 3 kg potatoes per m2 per year. 3 kg potatoes contain 8820 kJ energy, which roughly serves the energy requirements for one person for one day. So, a person needs about 365 m2 cropland at a minimum to survive.

===Wheat===
The average harvest of wheat is 0.28 kg per m2 per year. Under best conditions it is possible to grow 0.7 kg per m2 per year. 0.7 kg wheat contain 9198 kJ energy, which roughly serves the energy requirements for one person for one day. So, a person needs about 365 m2 cropland at a minimum to survive.

==Facts and figures==
*Sweden: 26260 kg potatoes per hectare <ref>[http://www.scb.se/templates/pressinfo____220855.asp Press release from Statistics Sweden and Swedish Board of Agriculture]</ref>

*Sweden: about 6000 kg wheats per hectare <ref>[http://www.ienica.net/reports/swedenupdate.pdf Report from State of Sweden]</ref>

*"Plain boiled potatoes are naturally low in fat and provide 72 kcal/100g (306 KJ/100g)" <ref>[http://www.nutrition.org.uk/home.asp?siteId=43&sectionId=428&parentSection=322&which=undefined British Nutrition Foundation - Potatoes]</ref>

*"Wheat flour provides 310 - 340 kcal/100g (1320 - 1450 KJ/100g)"<ref>[http://www.nutrition.org.uk/home.asp?siteId=43&sectionId=422&parentSection=322&which=undefined British Nutrition Foundation - Flour]</ref>

==Open issues==
*What sorts of food are required to keep the settlers healthy? We need a nutrition plan on a scientific base.
*How much vegetable is needed to produce 1 kg pork, chicken, rabbit, beef, flour worm, etc.?
*What esculent animal/insect/worm etc. needs the smallest amount of vegetable? The best mass ratio is sought-after. A list would be highly welcome.
*What is known about needed vitamins and minerals?
*Is it possible to make artificial food with an artificial mixture of vitamins and minerals, allowing humans to keep well and fit?

==See also==
*[[Food preservation]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category: Human Considerations]]
[[Category: Greenhouse]]
[[Category: Agriculture]]