Rivers on Mars - Revision history

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 ==Valley Networks==
-Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands.  They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971.   Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth.  These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).<ref>https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html</ref>
+Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands.  The total length of these channels was found to be 781,393 Km.<ref>B. M. Hynek, M. Beach, M. R. Hoke, Updated global map of Martian valley networks and implications for climate and hydrologic processes. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 115, 2009JE003548 (2010).</ref>  They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971.   Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth.  These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).<ref>https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html</ref>
 Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin reported in December 2025 that early Mars hosted 16 large river drainage systems.  These are areas where many smaller waterways fed into bigger channels across vast land regions. <ref>https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-discover-16-giant-river-networks-on-ancient-mars-where-life-could-have-thrived/ar-AA1RD8je?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=3100ecf2b0064ba2f84c2c127dce9c25&ei=64</ref> <ref> Zaki, A., et al.  2025.  Large drainage systems produced half of Mars’ ancient river sediment.  PNAS.  122 (48) e2514527122

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 Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin reported in December 2025 that early Mars hosted 16 large river drainage systems.  These are areas where many smaller waterways fed into bigger channels across vast land regions. <ref>https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-discover-16-giant-river-networks-on-ancient-mars-where-life-could-have-thrived/ar-AA1RD8je?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=3100ecf2b0064ba2f84c2c127dce9c25&ei=64</ref> <ref> Zaki, A., et al.  2025.  Large drainage systems produced half of Mars’ ancient river sediment.  PNAS.  122 (48) e2514527122
-https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.251452712</ref>
+https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.251452712</ref> <ref>B. M. Hynek, M. Beach, M. R. Hoke, Updated global map of Martian valley networks and implications for climate and hydrologic processes. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 115, 2009JE003548 (2010).</ref>
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 Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands.  They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971.   Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth.  These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).<ref>https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html</ref>
-Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin reported in December 2025 that early Mars hosted 16 large river drainage systems.  These are areas where many smaller waterways fed into bigger channels across vast land regions. <ref>https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-discover-16-giant-river-networks-on-ancient-mars-where-life-could-have-thrived/ar-AA1RD8je?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=3100ecf2b0064ba2f84c2c127dce9c25&ei=64</ref>
+Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin reported in December 2025 that early Mars hosted 16 large river drainage systems.  These are areas where many smaller waterways fed into bigger channels across vast land regions. <ref>https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-discover-16-giant-river-networks-on-ancient-mars-where-life-could-have-thrived/ar-AA1RD8je?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=3100ecf2b0064ba2f84c2c127dce9c25&ei=64</ref> <ref> Zaki, A., et al.  2025.  Large drainage systems produced half of Mars’ ancient river sediment.  PNAS.  122 (48) e2514527122
 <gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:01, 5 December 2025
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	Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands. They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971. Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth. These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).<ref>https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html</ref>		Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands. They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971. Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth. These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).<ref>https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html</ref>
		+
		+	Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin reported in December 2025 that early Mars hosted 16 large river drainage systems. These are areas where many smaller waterways fed into bigger channels across vast land regions. <ref>https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/scientists-discover-16-giant-river-networks-on-ancient-mars-where-life-could-have-thrived/ar-AA1RD8je?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=3100ecf2b0064ba2f84c2c127dce9c25&ei=64</ref>

	<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">		<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">

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 So we are left with what appears to be certain proof that Mars had great amounts of liquid water—somehow channels were made.   On the other hand, we do not know how the climate could have ever supported very much liquid water.<ref> Haberle, R.M.   1998.  Early Climate Models, J. Geophys. Res., 103(E12), 28467-79.</ref>
-Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created.   We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to that warmed to 0 degrees C (32 F) for running water to exist, because water on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.<ref>Fairen, A., et al.  2009.  Stability against freezing of aqueous solutions on early Mars.  Nature: 459, 401-404</ref>
+Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created.   We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to have warmed to 0 degrees C (32 F) for running water to exist, because water on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.<ref>Fairen, A., et al.  2009.  Stability against freezing of aqueous solutions on early Mars.  Nature: 459, 401-404</ref>
 Also, water may have collected in vast aquifers under the ground and released at different times by things such as heating from magma moving underground or by impacts of asteroids.  After large impacts, the nearby area might be warm enough, long enough for water to erode channels.<ref>https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2024.pdf</ref> <ref>Palumbo, A., J. Head.  OCEANS ON MARS: THE POSSIBILITY OF A NOACHIAN GROUNDWATER-FED OCEAN IN A SUBFREEZING MARTIAN CLIMATE.  50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132).  2024.pdf</ref> <ref> Newsome, H.E. (1980), Hydrothermal alteration of impact melt sheets with implications for Mars, Icarus, 44, 207-16.</ref> <ref>Mangold, N., V. Ansan, P. Masson, C. Quantin, and G. Neukum.  2008. Geomorphic study of fluvial landforms on the northern Valles Marinerisplateau, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E08009, doi:10.1029/2007JE002985.</ref> <ref>Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, and T. Colaprete.  2008.  Modeling the environmentaleffects of moderate‐sized impacts on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113,E11007, doi:10.1029/2008JE003147</ref> <ref> Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, T. Colaprete, and K. Zahnle.  2002. Environmental Effects of Large Impacts on Mars, Science, 298, 1977–1980. doi:10.1126/science.1073586</ref> <ref>Kraal, E. R., M. van Dijk, G. Postma, and M. G. Kleinhans  2008b.  Martian stepped‐delta formation by rapid water release, Nature, 451. 973–976, doi:10.1038/nature06615</ref> <ref>Toon, O. B., T. Segura, and K. Zahnle.  2010.  The formation of Martian river valleys by impacts, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 303–322. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152354</ref>

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 It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter.  But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water.  The sun did not give off as much light energy in the past.<ref>Wordsworth, R., et al.  2015.  Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model.   Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.</ref>  <ref>Squyres, S., J. Kasting.  1994.  Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet?  Science :  Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.</ref>  <ref>Catling, D. C. (2007).  Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay.  Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32. </ref>  This is known as the 'Faint Young Sun Paradox'.
-Another  factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.  There are two problems with this: unless Mars was warm enough, the CO<sub>2</sub> atmosphere would freeze out at the poles, rendering the extra carbon dioxide moot.  Also if there was much more carbon dioxide, it was expected to have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html</ref>    Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. <ref> Murchie, S., et al.  2009.  A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.   Journal of Geophysical Research:  114, E00D06</ref>   They do exist in tiny areas,  have been found in meteorites that came from Mars,  and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. <ref> McKay, C., et al.  1996.  Search for Past Life on Mars:  Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.  Science:  273,  924-930</ref>  <ref>https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/</ref>  <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html</ref> <ref>Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.</ref> <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/</ref>  Other have argued, that if Mars' water was more acidic, sulphates would be formed rather than carbonates. <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103513001310</ref>
+Another  factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.  There are two problems with this: unless Mars was warm enough, the thick CO<sub>2</sub> atmosphere would freeze out at the poles, rendering the extra carbon dioxide moot.  Also if there was much more carbon dioxide, it was expected to have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html</ref>    Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. <ref> Murchie, S., et al.  2009.  A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.   Journal of Geophysical Research:  114, E00D06</ref>   They do exist in tiny areas,  have been found in meteorites that came from Mars,  and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. <ref> McKay, C., et al.  1996.  Search for Past Life on Mars:  Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.  Science:  273,  924-930</ref>  <ref>https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/</ref>  <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html</ref> <ref>Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.</ref> <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/</ref>  Other have argued, that if Mars' water was more acidic, sulphates would be formed rather than carbonates. <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103513001310</ref>
 Some researchers  have proposed that other greenhouse gases may have been involved.<ref> Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F.  2014.  Warming early Mars with CO2 and H2. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.</ref>  <ref> Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H.  2017.  Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671.</ref>

@@ Line 94: / Line 94: @@
 ==Was Mars too cold for running water?==
-It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter.  But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water.  The sun is too far away.  It likely did not give off as much light energy in the past.<ref>Wordsworth, R., et al.  2015.  Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model.   Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.</ref>  <ref>Squyres, S., J. Kasting.  1994.  Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet?  Science :  Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.</ref>  <ref>Catling, D. C. (2007).  Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay.  Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32. </ref>   Another  factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.  However, if this were the case, carbon dioxide would have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html</ref>    Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. <ref> Murchie, S., et al.  2009.  A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.   Journal of Geophysical Research:  114, E00D06</ref>   They do exist in tiny areas,  have been found in meteorites that came from Mars,  and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. <ref> McKay, C., et al.  1996.  Search for Past Life on Mars:  Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.  Science:  273,  924-930</ref>  <ref>https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/</ref>  <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html</ref> <ref>Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.</ref> <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/</ref>  Some researchers  have proposed that other greenhouse gases may have been involved.<ref> Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F.  2014.  Warming early Mars with CO2 and H2. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.</ref>  <ref> Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H.  2017.  Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671.</ref>
+It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter.  But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water.  The sun did not give off as much light energy in the past.<ref>Wordsworth, R., et al.  2015.  Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model.   Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.</ref>  <ref>Squyres, S., J. Kasting.  1994.  Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet?  Science :  Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.</ref>  <ref>Catling, D. C. (2007).  Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay.  Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32. </ref>  This is known as the 'Faint Young Sun Paradox'.
-So we are left with what appears to be certain proof that Mars had great amounts of liquid water—somehow channels were made.   On the other hand, we do not know how the climate could have ever supported very much liquid water.<ref> Haberle, R.M.   1998.  Early Climate Models, J. Geophys. Res., 103(E12), 28467-79.</ref>   Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created.   We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to that warmed to 32 degrees F for running water to exist because water  on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.<ref>Fairen, A., et al.  2009.  Stability against freezing of aqueous solutions on early Mars.  Nature: 459, 401-404</ref>   Also, water may have collected in vast aquifers under the ground and released at different times by things such as heating from magma moving underground or by impacts of asteroids.  After large impacts, the nearby area might be warm enough, long enough for water to erode channels.<ref>https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2024.pdf</ref> <ref>Palumbo, A., J. Head.  OCEANS ON MARS: THE POSSIBILITY OF A NOACHIAN GROUNDWATER-FED OCEAN IN A SUBFREEZING MARTIAN CLIMATE.  50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132).  2024.pdf</ref> <ref> Newsome, H.E. (1980), Hydrothermal alteration of impact melt sheets with implications for Mars, Icarus, 44, 207-16.</ref> <ref>Mangold, N., V. Ansan, P. Masson, C. Quantin, and G. Neukum.  2008. Geomorphic study of fluvial landforms on the northern Valles Marinerisplateau, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E08009, doi:10.1029/2007JE002985.</ref> <ref>Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, and T. Colaprete.  2008.  Modeling the environmentaleffects of moderate‐sized impacts on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113,E11007, doi:10.1029/2008JE003147</ref> <ref> Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, T. Colaprete, and K. Zahnle.  2002. Environmental Effects of Large Impacts on Mars, Science, 298, 1977–1980. doi:10.1126/science.1073586</ref> <ref>Kraal, E. R., M. van Dijk, G. Postma, and M. G. Kleinhans  2008b.  Martian stepped‐delta formation by rapid water release, Nature, 451. 973–976, doi:10.1038/nature06615</ref> <ref>Toon, O. B., T. Segura, and K. Zahnle.  2010.  The formation of Martian river valleys by impacts, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 303–322. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152354</ref>   It has even been suggested that the weather after a big impact may be changed enough to generate rainfall.<ref>https://arxiv.org/abs/1902.07666</ref> <ref>Turbet, M., et al.   2019.  The environmental effects of very large bolide impacts on early Mars explored with a hierarchy of numerical models. Submitted to Icarus</ref> <ref>https://www.space.com/mars-water-from-massive-impacts.html?utm_source=sdc-newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=20190305-sdc</ref>   Some researchers think that streams may have existed under thick ice sheets. <ref>https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2574.pdf</ref> <ref>Galofre, G., et al.  2019.  DID MARTIAN VALLEY NETWORKS FORM UNDER ANCIENT ICE SHEETS?  50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132).  2574.pdf</ref> <ref> Squyres, S.W., and Kasting, J.F.  1994.   Early Mars: How warm and how wet?, Science, 265, 744-8.</ref> <ref>https://www.iflscience.com/space/massive-ice-sheets-not-rivers-may-have-carved-ancient-valleys-on-mars/</ref> <ref> https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-020-0618-x</ref> <ref>Galofre, A. et al.  2020.  Valley formation on early Mars by subglacial and fluvial erosion.  Nature Geoscience. </ref>  As of today, we just do not have a definite answer.
 ==References==