Difference between revisions of "Carbon Dioxide Scrubbers"
| Line 27: | Line 27: | ||
Moderating CO<sub>2</sub> levels over such a long period of time naturally implies weight and power demands, yet NASA has adopted more stringent regulations than the Navy, which allows up to 2.5% concentrations for submarine personnel over a 24-hour period.<ref name=":1" /> While both types of crews operate in a confined area with an artificially-regulated atmosphere, repairing a CO<sub>2</sub> removal system in space constitutes a potentially more complex task where one cannot simply surface in the event of an unsuccessful attempt brought on by concentration difficulties. Hypothetically, a well-developed Mars colony could relax such limitations slightly once it is large enough to contain multiple fail-safes and back-ups, thereby reducing the energy demands on the colony as a whole. | Moderating CO<sub>2</sub> levels over such a long period of time naturally implies weight and power demands, yet NASA has adopted more stringent regulations than the Navy, which allows up to 2.5% concentrations for submarine personnel over a 24-hour period.<ref name=":1" /> While both types of crews operate in a confined area with an artificially-regulated atmosphere, repairing a CO<sub>2</sub> removal system in space constitutes a potentially more complex task where one cannot simply surface in the event of an unsuccessful attempt brought on by concentration difficulties. Hypothetically, a well-developed Mars colony could relax such limitations slightly once it is large enough to contain multiple fail-safes and back-ups, thereby reducing the energy demands on the colony as a whole. | ||
==Biological CO<sub>2</sub> Scrubbers== | ==Biological CO<sub>2</sub> Scrubbers== | ||
| − | + | Several closed-ecosystem experiments conducted on Earth have investigated the viability of a plant-sustained air recycling system. In the 1970s, the BIOS-3 facility in Siberia found that 8m<sup>2</sup> of Chlorella algae could maintain the 0<sub>2</sub>/CO<sub>2</sub> balance for one individual in a 315 m<sup>3</sup> environment.<ref name=":2">Villazon, L. (n.d.). How many plants would I need in an airtight room to be able to breathe? Retrieved August 16, 2019, from BBC Science Focus Magazine website: <nowiki>https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-many-plants-would-i-need-in-an-airtight-room-to-be-able-to-breathe/</nowiki></ref> [[File:Biosphere2.jpg|left|thumb|The Biosphere 2 facility tested the potential of a closed, self-sustaining ecosystem]]The Biosphere 2 project in Arizona attempted a larger-scale project over the course of 2 years, sealing 8 participants in a 180,000 m<sup>3</sup> facility with an artificial ecosystem.<ref name=":3">Nelson, M., Dempster, W., Alvarez-Romo, N., & MacCallum, T. (1994). Atmospheric dynamics and bioregenerative technologies in a soil-based ecological life support system: Initial results from biosphere 2. ''Advances in Space Research'', ''14''(11), 417–426. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(94)90331-X</nowiki></ref> The facility operated in mostly closed-loop conditions, but was exposed to natural sunlight. Daily variance in this light caused CO<sub>2</sub> levels to fluctuate substantially according to the relative activity of photosynthesis: while levels dropped during the day, they rose sharply at night when respiration predominated. Seasonal variation was similarly evident, with levels rising in low-light winter months and on cloudy days, while longer sun exposures corresponding with summer months resulted in lower concentrations. December, for example, averaged CO<sub>2</sub> levels over twice as high as those in June, with the two months differing by up to 5 hours of sun exposure at their extreme ends. | |
| − | + | The project utilized various methods to attenuate the effects of this variance, including CO<sub>2</sub> sequestration via calcium carbonate precipitation, lowering nighttime temperatures to reduce respiration, and storing trimmed biomass in dry areas to slow its decomposition. Notably, an unanticipated, steady decline in oxygen levels—which required the artificial injection of fresh oxygen after dropping to a point where team members were suffering symptoms of altitude sickness—was attributed to additional microbial respiration from organically-enriched soil.<ref>Nelson, M. (2018). Biosphere 2: What Really Happened? Retrieved August 16, 2019, from Dartmouth Alumni Magazine website: <nowiki>https://dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/articles/biosphere-2-what-really-happened</nowiki></ref> Unsealed concrete in the habitat absorbed the CO<sub>2</sub> released by this respiration, and therefore presented its re-conversion into oxygen via photosynthesis. | |
| − | + | With further investigation, these plant-based systems could potentially fill the air-recycling needs of future space expeditions. Biological means have yet to feature as the primary form of CO<sub>2</sub> scrubbing for spacecraft due to a variety of reasons including mass constraints, the number of plants required per individual, and the energy costs of optimized lighting and air conditioning.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space. (n.d.). Retrieved August 15, 2019, from NASA.gov website: <nowiki>https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/146558main_RecyclingEDA(final)%204_10_06.pdf</nowiki></ref> The International Space Station, for example, has plants aboard, but not in the quantities necessary to have any appreciable impact on CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations.<ref>Dunn, T. (2015). Dissecting the Technology of “The Martian”: Air—Tested. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from Tested.com website: <nowiki>https://www.tested.com/science/538792-dissecting-technology-martian-air/</nowiki></ref> | |
| + | |||
| + | Yet, the above experiments hint at the possibility of an exclusively bioregenerative system. The ISS has a habitable volume (388 m<sup>3</sup>) slightly larger than the 315 m<sup>3</sup> environment of the BIOS-3 experiment, and a pressurized volume on the order of 3 times as large at 932 m<sup>3</sup>.<ref>Garcia, M. (2019). International Space Station Facts and Figures [Text]. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from NASA website: <nowiki>http://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures</nowiki></ref> The BIOS-3 experiments supported up to 3 individuals for 180 days,<ref name=":2" /> meaning that the ISS could theoretically recycle air for a crew of at least 8.<ref name=":4">Walker, R. (2015). Could Astronauts Get All Their Oxygen From Algae Or Plants? And Their Food Also? | Science 2.0. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from Science20.com website: <nowiki>https://www.science20.com/robert_inventor/could_astronauts_get_all_their_oxygen_from_algae_or_plants_and_their_food_also-156990</nowiki></ref> The algae in these experiments used 18 kW of artificial lighting per person; extrapolating this to 108 kW for a crew of six on the ISS—which is regularly in darkness and could not rely on natural light alone—would consume the majority of the 120 kW generated by the station's solar arrays.<ref>Garcia, M. (2017, July 31). About the Space Station Solar Arrays [Text]. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from NASA website: <nowiki>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/solar_arrays-about.html</nowiki></ref><ref name=":4" /> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 09:36, 16 August 2019
[This is an article in progress, and is currently being written]
Dangers of Excessive C02 Concentration
A steady supply of oxygen alone is insufficient to keep astronauts breathing. While the intake of oxygen is essential for respiration, the by-product of this respiration is the exhalation of approximately one kilogram of carbon-dioxide per day.[1] The concentration of this gas in Earth's atmosphere is roughly 0.04%, but in the close confines endured by astronauts, accumulations of CO2 can quickly reach toxic levels.[2]
| CO2 Concentration | Symptoms |
|---|---|
| 1% | Drowsiness |
| 3% | Impaired hearing, increased heart rate and blood pressure, stupor |
| 5% | Shortness of breath, headache, dizziness, confusion |
| 8% | Unconsciousness, muscle tremors, sweating |
| >8% | Death |
NASA has set strict limits of acceptable CO2 concentration on spacecraft. The longer the duration of the flight, the lower the permissible maximum: for example, while allowing a maximum of 2% for a one-hour period, NASA recommends that the concentration not exceed 0.5% over a 1000-day stay[1] (an as-yet hypothetical duration, as the record for longest consecutive stay in space at the time of writing is held by Russian cosmonaut Valery Polyakov at 438 days[3]). The proportionate decrease in concentration acceptability in accordance with duration accounts for the fact that the longer the period of time, the higher the likelihood of CO2-induced behavioral changes negatively affecting missions requiring close personal contact in confined spaces.
Moderating CO2 levels over such a long period of time naturally implies weight and power demands, yet NASA has adopted more stringent regulations than the Navy, which allows up to 2.5% concentrations for submarine personnel over a 24-hour period.[1] While both types of crews operate in a confined area with an artificially-regulated atmosphere, repairing a CO2 removal system in space constitutes a potentially more complex task where one cannot simply surface in the event of an unsuccessful attempt brought on by concentration difficulties. Hypothetically, a well-developed Mars colony could relax such limitations slightly once it is large enough to contain multiple fail-safes and back-ups, thereby reducing the energy demands on the colony as a whole.
Biological CO2 Scrubbers
Several closed-ecosystem experiments conducted on Earth have investigated the viability of a plant-sustained air recycling system. In the 1970s, the BIOS-3 facility in Siberia found that 8m2 of Chlorella algae could maintain the 02/CO2 balance for one individual in a 315 m3 environment.[4]
The Biosphere 2 project in Arizona attempted a larger-scale project over the course of 2 years, sealing 8 participants in a 180,000 m3 facility with an artificial ecosystem.[5] The facility operated in mostly closed-loop conditions, but was exposed to natural sunlight. Daily variance in this light caused CO2 levels to fluctuate substantially according to the relative activity of photosynthesis: while levels dropped during the day, they rose sharply at night when respiration predominated. Seasonal variation was similarly evident, with levels rising in low-light winter months and on cloudy days, while longer sun exposures corresponding with summer months resulted in lower concentrations. December, for example, averaged CO2 levels over twice as high as those in June, with the two months differing by up to 5 hours of sun exposure at their extreme ends.
The project utilized various methods to attenuate the effects of this variance, including CO2 sequestration via calcium carbonate precipitation, lowering nighttime temperatures to reduce respiration, and storing trimmed biomass in dry areas to slow its decomposition. Notably, an unanticipated, steady decline in oxygen levels—which required the artificial injection of fresh oxygen after dropping to a point where team members were suffering symptoms of altitude sickness—was attributed to additional microbial respiration from organically-enriched soil.[6] Unsealed concrete in the habitat absorbed the CO2 released by this respiration, and therefore presented its re-conversion into oxygen via photosynthesis.
With further investigation, these plant-based systems could potentially fill the air-recycling needs of future space expeditions. Biological means have yet to feature as the primary form of CO2 scrubbing for spacecraft due to a variety of reasons including mass constraints, the number of plants required per individual, and the energy costs of optimized lighting and air conditioning.[5][7] The International Space Station, for example, has plants aboard, but not in the quantities necessary to have any appreciable impact on CO2 concentrations.[8]
Yet, the above experiments hint at the possibility of an exclusively bioregenerative system. The ISS has a habitable volume (388 m3) slightly larger than the 315 m3 environment of the BIOS-3 experiment, and a pressurized volume on the order of 3 times as large at 932 m3.[9] The BIOS-3 experiments supported up to 3 individuals for 180 days,[4] meaning that the ISS could theoretically recycle air for a crew of at least 8.[10] The algae in these experiments used 18 kW of artificial lighting per person; extrapolating this to 108 kW for a crew of six on the ISS—which is regularly in darkness and could not rely on natural light alone—would consume the majority of the 120 kW generated by the station's solar arrays.[11][10]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 James, J. T., & Macatangay, A. (2009). Carbon Dioxide – Our Common “Enemy.” 8.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Freudenrich, C. (2011). How is carbon dioxide eliminated aboard a spacecraft? | HowStuffWorks. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from HowStuffWorks website: https://science.howstuffworks.com/carbon-dioxide-eliminated-aboard-spacecraft.htm
- ↑ Wall, M. (2019). Most Extreme Human Spaceflight Records of All Time | Space. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from Soace.com website: https://www.space.com/11337-human-spaceflight-records-50th-anniversary.html
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Villazon, L. (n.d.). How many plants would I need in an airtight room to be able to breathe? Retrieved August 16, 2019, from BBC Science Focus Magazine website: https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-many-plants-would-i-need-in-an-airtight-room-to-be-able-to-breathe/
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Nelson, M., Dempster, W., Alvarez-Romo, N., & MacCallum, T. (1994). Atmospheric dynamics and bioregenerative technologies in a soil-based ecological life support system: Initial results from biosphere 2. Advances in Space Research, 14(11), 417–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-1177(94)90331-X
- ↑ Nelson, M. (2018). Biosphere 2: What Really Happened? Retrieved August 16, 2019, from Dartmouth Alumni Magazine website: https://dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/articles/biosphere-2-what-really-happened
- ↑ Closing the Loop: Recycling Water and Air in Space. (n.d.). Retrieved August 15, 2019, from NASA.gov website: https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/146558main_RecyclingEDA(final)%204_10_06.pdf
- ↑ Dunn, T. (2015). Dissecting the Technology of “The Martian”: Air—Tested. Retrieved August 15, 2019, from Tested.com website: https://www.tested.com/science/538792-dissecting-technology-martian-air/
- ↑ Garcia, M. (2019). International Space Station Facts and Figures [Text]. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from NASA website: http://www.nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Walker, R. (2015). Could Astronauts Get All Their Oxygen From Algae Or Plants? And Their Food Also? | Science 2.0. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from Science20.com website: https://www.science20.com/robert_inventor/could_astronauts_get_all_their_oxygen_from_algae_or_plants_and_their_food_also-156990
- ↑ Garcia, M. (2017, July 31). About the Space Station Solar Arrays [Text]. Retrieved August 16, 2019, from NASA website: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/solar_arrays-about.html
