Difference between revisions of "Rivers on Mars"

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It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter.  But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water.  The sun did not give off as much light energy in the past.<ref>Wordsworth, R., et al.  2015.  Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model.  Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.</ref>  <ref>Squyres, S., J. Kasting.  1994.  Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet?  Science :  Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.</ref>  <ref>Catling, D. C. (2007).  Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay.  Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32. </ref>  This is known as the 'Faint Young Sun Paradox'.
 
It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter.  But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water.  The sun did not give off as much light energy in the past.<ref>Wordsworth, R., et al.  2015.  Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model.  Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.</ref>  <ref>Squyres, S., J. Kasting.  1994.  Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet?  Science :  Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.</ref>  <ref>Catling, D. C. (2007).  Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay.  Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32. </ref>  This is known as the 'Faint Young Sun Paradox'.
  
−
Another  factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.  There are two problems with this: unless Mars was warm enough, the CO<sub>2</sub> atmosphere would freeze out at the poles, rendering the extra carbon dioxide moot.  Also if there was much more carbon dioxide, it was expected to have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html</ref>    Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. <ref> Murchie, S., et al.  2009.  A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.  Journal of Geophysical Research:  114, E00D06</ref>  They do exist in tiny areas,  have been found in meteorites that came from Mars,  and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. <ref> McKay, C., et al.  1996.  Search for Past Life on Mars:  Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.  Science:  273,  924-930</ref>  <ref>https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/</ref>  <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html</ref> <ref>Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.</ref> <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/</ref>  Other have argued, that if Mars' water was more acidic, sulphates would be formed rather than carbonates. <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103513001310</ref>
+
Another  factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.  There are two problems with this: unless Mars was warm enough, the thick CO<sub>2</sub> atmosphere would freeze out at the poles, rendering the extra carbon dioxide moot.  Also if there was much more carbon dioxide, it was expected to have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.<ref>http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html</ref>    Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. <ref> Murchie, S., et al.  2009.  A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.  Journal of Geophysical Research:  114, E00D06</ref>  They do exist in tiny areas,  have been found in meteorites that came from Mars,  and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. <ref> McKay, C., et al.  1996.  Search for Past Life on Mars:  Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.  Science:  273,  924-930</ref>  <ref>https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/</ref>  <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html</ref> <ref>Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.</ref> <ref> https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/</ref>  Other have argued, that if Mars' water was more acidic, sulphates would be formed rather than carbonates. <ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103513001310</ref>
  
 
Some researchers  have proposed that other greenhouse gases may have been involved.<ref> Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F.  2014.  Warming early Mars with CO2 and H2. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.</ref>  <ref> Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H.  2017.  Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671.</ref>
 
Some researchers  have proposed that other greenhouse gases may have been involved.<ref> Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F.  2014.  Warming early Mars with CO2 and H2. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.</ref>  <ref> Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H.  2017.  Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671.</ref>
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So we are left with what appears to be certain proof that Mars had great amounts of liquid water—somehow channels were made.  On the other hand, we do not know how the climate could have ever supported very much liquid water.<ref> Haberle, R.M.  1998.  Early Climate Models, J. Geophys. Res., 103(E12), 28467-79.</ref>   
 
So we are left with what appears to be certain proof that Mars had great amounts of liquid water—somehow channels were made.  On the other hand, we do not know how the climate could have ever supported very much liquid water.<ref> Haberle, R.M.  1998.  Early Climate Models, J. Geophys. Res., 103(E12), 28467-79.</ref>   
  
−
Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created.  We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to that warmed to 32 degrees F for running water to exist because water on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.<ref>Fairen, A., et al.  2009.  Stability against freezing of aqueous solutions on early Mars.  Nature: 459, 401-404</ref>   
+
Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created.  We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to have warmed to 0 degrees C (32 F) for running water to exist, because water on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.<ref>Fairen, A., et al.  2009.  Stability against freezing of aqueous solutions on early Mars.  Nature: 459, 401-404</ref>   
  
 
Also, water may have collected in vast aquifers under the ground and released at different times by things such as heating from magma moving underground or by impacts of asteroids.  After large impacts, the nearby area might be warm enough, long enough for water to erode channels.<ref>https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2024.pdf</ref> <ref>Palumbo, A., J. Head.  OCEANS ON MARS: THE POSSIBILITY OF A NOACHIAN GROUNDWATER-FED OCEAN IN A SUBFREEZING MARTIAN CLIMATE.  50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132).  2024.pdf</ref> <ref> Newsome, H.E. (1980), Hydrothermal alteration of impact melt sheets with implications for Mars, Icarus, 44, 207-16.</ref> <ref>Mangold, N., V. Ansan, P. Masson, C. Quantin, and G. Neukum.  2008. Geomorphic study of fluvial landforms on the northern Valles Marinerisplateau, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E08009, doi:10.1029/2007JE002985.</ref> <ref>Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, and T. Colaprete.  2008.  Modeling the environmentaleffects of moderate‐sized impacts on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113,E11007, doi:10.1029/2008JE003147</ref> <ref> Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, T. Colaprete, and K. Zahnle.  2002. Environmental Effects of Large Impacts on Mars, Science, 298, 1977–1980. doi:10.1126/science.1073586</ref> <ref>Kraal, E. R., M. van Dijk, G. Postma, and M. G. Kleinhans  2008b.  Martian stepped‐delta formation by rapid water release, Nature, 451. 973–976, doi:10.1038/nature06615</ref> <ref>Toon, O. B., T. Segura, and K. Zahnle.  2010.  The formation of Martian river valleys by impacts, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 303–322. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152354</ref>   
 
Also, water may have collected in vast aquifers under the ground and released at different times by things such as heating from magma moving underground or by impacts of asteroids.  After large impacts, the nearby area might be warm enough, long enough for water to erode channels.<ref>https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2024.pdf</ref> <ref>Palumbo, A., J. Head.  OCEANS ON MARS: THE POSSIBILITY OF A NOACHIAN GROUNDWATER-FED OCEAN IN A SUBFREEZING MARTIAN CLIMATE.  50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132).  2024.pdf</ref> <ref> Newsome, H.E. (1980), Hydrothermal alteration of impact melt sheets with implications for Mars, Icarus, 44, 207-16.</ref> <ref>Mangold, N., V. Ansan, P. Masson, C. Quantin, and G. Neukum.  2008. Geomorphic study of fluvial landforms on the northern Valles Marinerisplateau, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113, E08009, doi:10.1029/2007JE002985.</ref> <ref>Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, and T. Colaprete.  2008.  Modeling the environmentaleffects of moderate‐sized impacts on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 113,E11007, doi:10.1029/2008JE003147</ref> <ref> Segura, T. L., O. B. Toon, T. Colaprete, and K. Zahnle.  2002. Environmental Effects of Large Impacts on Mars, Science, 298, 1977–1980. doi:10.1126/science.1073586</ref> <ref>Kraal, E. R., M. van Dijk, G. Postma, and M. G. Kleinhans  2008b.  Martian stepped‐delta formation by rapid water release, Nature, 451. 973–976, doi:10.1038/nature06615</ref> <ref>Toon, O. B., T. Segura, and K. Zahnle.  2010.  The formation of Martian river valleys by impacts, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 303–322. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152354</ref>   

Latest revision as of 15:38, 25 November 2024

Mars topography (MOLA dataset) HiRes (1).jpg

Article written by Jim Secosky. Jim is a retired science teacher who has used the Hubble Space Telescope, the Mars Global Surveyor, and HiRISE.


Nirgal Vallis, as seen by Mariner 9 This is one of the first images to show evidence of past water on Mars.

There is much evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved and branched channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] These river valleys are called Vallis (plural Valles), the Latin word for valley.

Outflow Channels

Water poured out of the ground here at Ravi Vallis and carved a channel.


Researchers have grouped Martian river valleys into two groups. One type, called outflow channels, carried as much as or more water any on Earth and maybe at any time in Earth’s history.[7] Rushing water formed large streamlined islands. Vast quantities of water seem to have just burst out of the ground.[8] [9] [10] [11] [12] The water originated in areas of collapsed terrain where the ground ended up formed into mesas and large blocks. This collapsed terrain has been called chaos.[13] The water is thought to have flowed to lower elevations and created an ocean to the north that may have been one third the area of Mars.[14] [15] Some researches postulated that floods erupted from the ground many times.[16] [17] Since Mars is very cold, ice would have quickly formed on the top and allowed the water to move along for some time. Scientists generally agree that Mars has a thick shell of ice under the surface.[18] Perhaps in the past there was a vast interconnected layer of water under it. If an asteroid, fault, or volcanic eruption caused the ice to break, water could pour out. [19] [20] [21]


  • Labeled topo map of Kasei Valles and many other outflow channels These channels supplied water to a vast Martian Ocean.

  • Labeled topo map of outflow channels in the Oxia Palus region

  • Teardrop-shaped islands formed from water.

  • Maja Valles, an outflow channel, shaped land around Dromore crater.

  • Streamlined forms in wide channel These were shaped by running water.

Streamlined shapes from around Mars. Great floods of water formed these. Water burst out of the ground.

Streamlined shapes from around Mars. Great floods of water formed these. Water burst out of the ground.

Valley Networks

Another type of channel exists mostly in the old, southern highlands. They were discovered by Mariner 9 in 1971. Sometimes called valley networks, these channels closely resemble streams in drainage basins on the Earth. These channels can be loosely divided into two subtypes: long, winding valleys with few tributaries, and smaller valley networks, often with complex, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries (dendritic).[22]

  • Long winding channel in the Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle

However, branches are typically shorter on Mars than on the Earth. [23] Also, most channels do not exhibit a high branching density. But, in some places the stream branches are, in fact, as dense as some on Earth.[24] Many look as if they were made with precipitation. Further support for abundant water flow, came from a research team that developed a computer program to look for valleys made by streams found that the stream networks were much longer than previous thought (2.3 times longer) and that they were much denser. Valleys were especially dense in northern Terra Cimmeria and the Margaritifer Terra. There results suggest that precipitation may have caused them.[25] [26] [27]

Warrego Valles system as seen by the Thermal Emission Imaging System on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft

Warrego Valles system as seen by the Thermal Emission Imaging System on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft This system shows the dendritic pattern, multiply-branched patterns of tributaries. This image is one of the first to show this type of system.

  • These branched channels, as seen by Viking look like they were caused by rainfall. This is a classic photo--it really opened our eyes about lots of water on Mars in the past.

  • Small branched channel

  • Branched channel, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish Program

  • Channel network

Channels displaying curves, wide meanders, oxbow lakes, and wide meanders are similar to those on Earth. Many channels end in low areas such as craters. At times, deltas form where the stream enters a crater; they look like a stream entering a lake. Some small streams are found on valley floors. Stream channels on valley floors imply more than one episode of flow.[28] [29]


  • Small channel on floor of a valley suggest water flowed more than once here.

  • Channel on floor of a valley Water may have carved large valley early on; later the small channel was made.

  • Channels carried water in and out of craters.

  • Delta on Holden Crater floor, as seen by CTX

  • An oxbow means that water flowed long enough to make a meander before the stream made a shortcut across the meanders.

  • Meander with parts labeled Features like this show that water stayed around for a while. Meanmders start with small loops that get progressively larger.

  • Meander with cutoff This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Cutoff from a meander. This type of formations takes a long time to form.


Even though some channels go for relative short distances, some may run for hundreds or thousands of kilometers. One long system of lakes and rivers may reach from the far south to the far north. [30] [31] [32] In a study released in 2018, researchers found 34 palelakes and associated channels in the northeastern Hellas Basin. Because some were close to the Hadriacus volcano, some channels may have been created by hydrothermal systems; thereby allowing ice to melt. A number look as if they were formed from precipitation, others from groundwater.[33] [34] [35]

  • Curved and branched channels

Variety of channels from around Mars 

                          Variety of channels from around Mars

Streams in craters

Streams have been found in craters. Some developed from glaciers. Snow accumulated on crater walls and formed glaciers when snow became deep enough. When water melted at the bottom, it flowed onto the crater floor. We see evidence of this with inverted channels. Inverted channels are made when hard materials pile up in the streams. Later erosion, often by the wind, will remove the surrounding, softer material and leave behind elevated ridges where the streams were.[36] [37]

Gale crater may have contained many streams or rivers. The Curiosity rover found features that have been linked to past streams. They have been called benches and noses. The "noses" stick out like noses. Computer simulations show that these shapes can be produced by rivers.[38] [39] [40]

Was Mars too cold for running water?

It seems that these valley networks happened in the past when Mars was much warmer and wetter. But, climate models all say that Mars was always too cold to have much liquid water. The sun did not give off as much light energy in the past.[41] [42] [43] This is known as the 'Faint Young Sun Paradox'.

Another factor that could still have made the climate warmer is that the atmosphere may have been much thicker in the past and could have contained greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide. There are two problems with this: unless Mars was warm enough, the thick CO2 atmosphere would freeze out at the poles, rendering the extra carbon dioxide moot. Also if there was much more carbon dioxide, it was expected to have ended up in large deposits of carbonate rocks such as limestone.[44] Despite looking with instruments designed to detect carbonates, scientists have found very little. [45] They do exist in tiny areas, have been found in meteorites that came from Mars, and have been found by landers, but there just does not seem to be enough to say that Mars once had a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] Other have argued, that if Mars' water was more acidic, sulphates would be formed rather than carbonates. [51]

Some researchers have proposed that other greenhouse gases may have been involved.[52] [53]

So we are left with what appears to be certain proof that Mars had great amounts of liquid water—somehow channels were made. On the other hand, we do not know how the climate could have ever supported very much liquid water.[54]

Nevertheless, scientists have suggested many ways for channels to be created. We must keep in mind that the planet does not have to have warmed to 0 degrees C (32 F) for running water to exist, because water on Mars would likely contain dissolved minerals that would lower its freezing point.[55]

Also, water may have collected in vast aquifers under the ground and released at different times by things such as heating from magma moving underground or by impacts of asteroids. After large impacts, the nearby area might be warm enough, long enough for water to erode channels.[56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63]

It has even been suggested that the weather after a big impact may be changed enough to generate rainfall.[64] [65] [66]

Some researchers think that streams may have existed under thick ice sheets. [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72]

As of today, we just do not have a definite answer.

References

  1. ↑ Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
  2. ↑ Baker, V., R. Strom, R., V. Gulick, J. Kargel, G. Komatsu, V. Kale. 1991. Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars. Nature 352, 589–594.
  3. ↑ Carr, M. 1979. Formation of Martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers. J. Geophys. Res. 84, 2995–300.
  4. ↑ Komar, P. 1979. Comparisons of the hydraulics of water flows in Martian outflow channels with flows of similar scale on Earth. Icarus 37, 156–181.
  5. ↑ http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/3/eaav7710
  6. ↑ Kite, E., et al. 2019. Persistence of intense, climate-driven runoff late in Mars history. Science Advances: 5, eaav7710
  7. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_045833_1845
  8. ↑ Baker, V.R. (1982). The Channels of Mars. Austin: Texas University Press.
  9. ↑ Carr, M. (1979). "Formation of Martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers". J. Geophys. Res., 84, 2995-3007.
  10. ↑ Clifford, S. M.; Parker, T. J. (2001). "The Evolution of the Martian Hydrosphere: Implications for the Fate of a Primordial Ocean and the Current State of the Northern Plains". Icarus. 154 (1): 40–79. Bibcode:2001Icar..154...40C. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6671
  11. ↑ Andrews-Hanna, J., R. Phillips. 2007. Hydrological modeling of outflow channels and chaos regions on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 112, Issue E8
  12. ↑ Clifford, S. 1993. A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars. JGR, 98, 10973L
  13. ↑ Carr, M.H. (2006), The Surface of Mars. Cambridge Planetary Science Series, Cambridge University Press.
  14. ↑ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100613181245.htm
  15. ↑ Gaetano Di Achille, Brian M. Hynek. Ancient ocean on Mars supported by global distribution of deltas and valleys. Nature, 2010; DOI: 10.1038/ngeo891
  16. ↑ Coleman, N and C. Coughenour. 2021. CONSIDERATION OF STREAM POWER AND THE OUTFLOW CHANNELS OF MARS. 52nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2021 (LPI Contrib. No. 2548). 1010.pdf
  17. ↑ Coleman N. (2010) LPSC 41, Abs. #1174, Kasei cataracts, https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/1174.pdf.
  18. ↑ Clifford, S. 1993. A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars. Geophys. Res. 98 (E6)
  19. ↑ Carr, M. 1979. Formation of martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers. J. Geophys. Res. 84: 2995-3007.
  20. ↑ ISBN 978-0-521-87501-0 Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (0) does not correspond to calculated figure.
  21. ↑ Hanna, J. and R. Phillips. 2005. Tectonic pressurization of aquifers in the formation of Mangala and Athabasca Valles on Mars. LPSC XXXVI. Abstract 2261.
  22. ↑ https://www.msss.com/http/ps/channels/channels.html
  23. ↑ Baker, V. , and J. Partridge. 1986. Small Martian valleys: Pristine and degraded morphology, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 3561–3572.
  24. ↑ Hynek, B.M., and Phillips, R. 2001. Evidence of extensive denudation of the martian highlands, Geology, 29, 407-10
  25. ↑ https://www.astrobio.net/mars/martian-north-once-covered-by-ocean/
  26. ↑ Luo, W., T. Stepinski. 2009. Computer‐generated global map of valley networks on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets: 114, Issue E11. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JE003357.
  27. ↑ https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2009JE003357
  28. ↑ Malin, M.C., and Carr, M.H. (1999), Groundwater formation of martian valleys, Nature, 397, 589-592
  29. ↑ Jaumann, R. (2005), Martian valley networks and associated fluvial features as seen by the Mars Express High Resolution Camera (HRSC), LPSC XXXVI, Abstract 1815
  30. ↑ Cabrol, N., E. Grin. 1999. Distribution, classification, and ages of martian impact crater lakes. Icarus: 142, 160-172.
  31. ↑ Irwin, R.; et al. (2005). "An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars. 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development". J. Geophys. Res. 110.
  32. ↑ Fassett, C.; Head, J. (2008). "Valley network-fed, open-basin lakes on Mars: Distribution and implications for Noachian surface and subsurface hydrology". Icarus. 198: 37–56.
  33. ↑ https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ast.2018.1816?journalCode=ast
  34. ↑ https://www.seti.org/groundwater-and-precipitation-provided-water-form-lakes-along-northern-rim-hellas-basin-throughout
  35. ↑ Hargitai, H., et al. 2018. Groundwater-Fed, and Fluvial Lakes in the Navua–Hadriacus–Ausonia Region, Mars. Astrobiology: 18. (11). https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2018.1816
  36. ↑ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0032063322002070
  37. ↑ Boatwright, B. and J. Head. 2023. Inverted fluvial channels in Terra Sabaea, Mars: Geomorphic evidence for proglacial paleolakes and widespread highlands glaciation in the Late Noachian–Early Hesperian. Planetary and Space Science Volume 225, January 2023, 105621
  38. ↑ https://agupubs.on.linelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL103618
  39. ↑ Cardenas, B., and K. Staciey. 2023. Landforms Associated With the Aspect-Controlled Exhumation of Crater-Filling Alluvial Strata on Mars. Geophysical Research letters. Volume50, Issue15 16 August 2023 e2023GL103618
  40. ↑ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/10/231024110548.htm
  41. ↑ Wordsworth, R., et al. 2015. Comparison of “warm and wet” and “cold and icy” scenarios for early Mars in a 3‐D climate model. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets Volume 120, Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JE004787.
  42. ↑ Squyres, S., J. Kasting. 1994. Early Mars: How Warm and How Wet? Science : Vol. 265, Issue 5173, pp. 744-749.
  43. ↑ Catling, D. C. (2007). Mars: Ancient fingerprints in the clay. Nature. 448 (7149): 31–32.
  44. ↑ http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Oct03/carbonatesMars.html
  45. ↑ Murchie, S., et al. 2009. A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars years of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Journal of Geophysical Research: 114, E00D06
  46. ↑ McKay, C., et al. 1996. Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Science: 273, 924-930
  47. ↑ https://www.webelements.com/nexus/carbonate-minerals-on-mars/
  48. ↑ https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20040109a.html
  49. ↑ Pollack, J. B, Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O. B., Rank, D., Dalton, B., and Freedman, R. (1990) Thermal emission spectra of Mars (5.4-10.5 microns): evidence for sulfates, carbonates, and hydrates, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95 (B9), p. 14595-14627.
  50. ↑ https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/4040/carbonate-containing-martian-rocks/
  51. ↑ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103513001310
  52. ↑ Ramirez, R. M., Kopparapu, R., Zugger, M. E., Robinson, T. D., Freedman, R., & Kasting, J. F. 2014. Warming early Mars with CO2 and H2. Nature Geoscience, 7(1), 59-63.
  53. ↑ Wordsworth, R., Kalugina, Y., Lokshtanov, S., Vigasin, A., Ehlmann, B., Head, J., ... & Wang, H. 2017. Transient reducing greenhouse warming on early Mars. Geophysical Research Letters, 44(2), 665-671.
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  63. ↑ Toon, O. B., T. Segura, and K. Zahnle. 2010. The formation of Martian river valleys by impacts, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 38, 303–322. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040809-152354
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  65. ↑ Turbet, M., et al. 2019. The environmental effects of very large bolide impacts on early Mars explored with a hierarchy of numerical models. Submitted to Icarus
  66. ↑ https://www.space.com/mars-water-from-massive-impacts.html?utm_source=sdc-newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=20190305-sdc
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  68. ↑ Galofre, G., et al. 2019. DID MARTIAN VALLEY NETWORKS FORM UNDER ANCIENT ICE SHEETS? 50th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019 (LPI Contrib. No. 2132). 2574.pdf
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See Also

External links

  • Head, J., et al. 2023. GEOLOGICAL AND CLIMATE HISTORY OF MARS: IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL WARM AND

WET CLIMATE ‘FALSE POSITIVES’. 54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2023 (LPI Contrib. No. 2806). 1731.pdf

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