Difference between revisions of "What Mars Actually Looks Like!"

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==Gullies==
 
==Gullies==
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Martian gullies are networks of narrow channels and their associated downslope  deposits, found on steep slopes .  A high concentration occurs near 40 degrees north and south of the equator.  Usually, each gully has an ''alcove'' at its head, a fan-shaped ''apron'' at its base, and a ''channel'' linking the two.<ref name="Malin, M. 2000">Malin, M., Edgett, K.  2000.  Evidence for recent groundwater seepage and surface runoff on Mars. Science 288, 2330–2335.</ref> They are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters.  They were believed to be caused by recent running water, but with more observations it was shown that pieces of dry ice moving down slopes could cause them.
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[[Martian gullies]] are networks of narrow channels and their associated downslope  deposits, found on steep slopes .  A high concentration occurs near 40 degrees north and south of the equator.  Usually, each gully has an ''alcove'' at its head, a fan-shaped ''apron'' at its base, and a ''channel'' linking the two.<ref name="Malin, M. 2000">Malin, M., Edgett, K.  2000.  Evidence for recent groundwater seepage and surface runoff on Mars. Science 288, 2330–2335.</ref> They are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters.  They were believed to be caused by recent running water, but with more observations it was shown that pieces of dry ice moving down slopes could cause them.
 
<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
 
<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
 
File:ESP 039621 1315gullies.jpg|Gullies with alcove, channel, and apron labeled   
 
File:ESP 039621 1315gullies.jpg|Gullies with alcove, channel, and apron labeled   

Revision as of 05:13, 4 June 2018

Article written by Jim Secosky. Jim is a retired science teacher who has used the Hubble Space Telescope, the Mars Global Surveyor, and HiRISE.


Almost all of the sites that we have landed on Mars with spacecraft have been to the most drab and boring places on the planet. This was done to ensure a safe landing. This article will display many of the more exciting landscapes using HiRISE images. HiRISE images can show detail down to the size of a small kitchen table. With HiRISE we frequently even see spacecraft that have landed on the surface. Many of the scenes shown here are about one would see at the height of a helicopter. Most of the HiRISE images here were obtained through the HiWish program, a program where anyone could suggest places to be imaged with HiRISE. To obtain the images, I studied wide angle CTX images to find sites that could contain interesting features. I was lucky that many of my suggestions were photographed, and I was able to gather them for this article.

Viking 1

Viking 1 was the first successful spacecraft to land on Mars. It landed on July 20, 1976 at 22.27 N and 47.95 W. July 20th was also the date when we first landed on the moon in 1969.

Rocks and dunes, as seen from Viking 1 Holes were dug by the digging tool. Part of the meteorology boom is visible.

Viking 2

Viking 2 landed on September 3, 1976 at 47.64 N and 275.71 W.

View from Viking 2

Mars Pathfinder

The Mars Pathfinder landed on July 4, 1997 at 19 degrees 7’ 48” in Ares Vallis.

Wide view from Mars pathfinder, showing Sojourner Rover

Spirit Rover

The Spirit Rover landed on January 4, 2004 at 14.5684 S and 175.472636 E.

  • Bonneville crater from Spirit Rover Columbia Hills are in the right in the distance. Spirit eventually drove to the Columbia Hills.

  • Wide view with Husband Hill in the distance to which Spirit eventually drove to. Solar panels are visible.

  • Wide view from Spirit Rover Solar panels are visible.

Opportunity Rover

The Opportunity Rover landed on January 25, 2004 at 1.9462 S and 354.4734 E.

  • Wide view from Opportunity showing heat shield to the left and circular impact crater on the right

  • Wide view of Perserverance Valley taken with Opportunity Rover High points visible on the rim of Endeavour Crater include "Winnemucca" on the left and "Cape Tribulation" on the right. Winnemucca is part of the "Cape Byron" portion of the crater rim. The horizon at far right extends across the floor of Endeavour Crater, which is about 14 miles (22 kilometers) in diameter.

  • Wide view from top of the "Cape Tribulation" segment of the rim of Endeavour Crater.

Phoenix

Phoenix landed in the far North of Mars on May 25, 2008 at 68.22 N and 125.7 W in Vastitas Borealis.

Wide view from Phoenix lander Solar panels are visible.

Curiosity Rover

The Curiosity Rover landed on August 6, 2012 at Gale Crater in Aeolis Palus at 4.5895 S and 137.4417 E. By this time scientists were able to be more precise with their landings, so Curiosity has been able to get views of Mars that are pretty exciting.

Early view from Curiosity Mount Sharp is in the distance. The shadow of Rover is visible. Mount Sharp at a height of about 3.4 miles is taller than Mt. Whitney in California.

  • Slip Face on Downwind Side of 'Namib' Sand Dune on Mars, as seen by Curiosity Dune stands about 13 feet (4 meters) high. Picture taken with Navcam.

  • This evenly layered rock photographed by the Mast Camera (Mastcam) on NASA's Curiosity Mars Rover shows a pattern typical of a lake-floor sedimentary deposit not far from where flowing water entered a lake.

  • View from the "Kimberley" formation on Mars taken by NASA's Curiosity rover.

  • View from Mastcam on Curiosity showing sloping buttes and layered outcrops on lower Mount Sharp

What follows are a few pictures of the many different scenes that we have studied with powerful cameras on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that has been going around Mars for over 10 years.

Dunes

The Martian surface displays many beautiful dark dunes. For many years, scientists thought dark dunes were composed of the grains of sand from the volcanic rock basalt; this was confirmed by rovers on the surface.[1] The dunes are covered by a seasonal carbon dioxide frost that forms in early autumn and remains until late spring.

  • Colorful dunes in the Mare Tyrrhenum quadrangle

  • Wide view of dune field in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Defrosting dunes in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Color view of dunes defrosting Ice is in the toughs of the polygons.

Layers

Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.[2] Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.

  • Layers in Crommelin Crater

  • Layers and fault in Firsoff Crater

Glaciers

There are large areas on Mars that contain what is thought to be ice moving under a cover of debris. A few meters of debris can preserve ice for long periods of time.[3]

Several types of landforms have been identified as probably dirt and rock debris covering huge deposits of ice.[4] [5] [6] [7] Concentric crater fill (CCF) contains dozens to hundreds of concentric ridges that are caused by the movements of sometimes hundreds of meter thick accumulations of ice in craters.[8] [9] Lineated valley fill (LVF)are lines of ridges in valleys.[10] [11] [12] These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys. Some of these glaciers seem to come from material sitting around mesas and buttes.[13] Lobate debris aprons (LDA) is the name given to these glaciers. All of these features that are believed to contain large amounts of ice are found in the mid-latitudes in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres.[14] [15] [16]

  • Glacier leaving a valley in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Concentric crater fill The concentric lines are formed from ice moving away from the crater walls. This crater is mostly full of ice.

  • Wide view of concentric crater fill in crater in Casius quadrangle

  • Mesa with Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA) Orbiting radars have detected ice in LDA’s under a thin cover of debris.


  • Lineated Valley Flow in valley

  • Labeled view of Lineated Valley Flow and glacier

Gullies

Martian gullies are networks of narrow channels and their associated downslope deposits, found on steep slopes . A high concentration occurs near 40 degrees north and south of the equator. Usually, each gully has an alcove at its head, a fan-shaped apron at its base, and a channel linking the two.[17] They are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters. They were believed to be caused by recent running water, but with more observations it was shown that pieces of dry ice moving down slopes could cause them.

  • Gullies with alcove, channel, and apron labeled

  • Gullies in Argyre quadrangle Curved channels were thought to need running water to form.

  • Gullies in Phaethontis quadrangle

Channels

There are thousands of channels that were probably caused by running water in the past on Mars. Some are large; some are tiny.[18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

  • Small branched channel

  • Channel in the Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle

  • Streamlined forms in wide channel These were shaped by running water.

  • An oxbow means that water flowed long enough to make a meander before the stream made a shortcut across the meanders.

Troughs

The great weight of several huge volcanoes on Mars has stretched the crust and made it break into cracks called, “troughs” or “fossae.” Some of them show evidence that lava and/or water have come out of them in the past. They can be very long.[23] [24] [25]

  • Troughs in the Elysium Planitia

  • Troughs in Amenthes quadrangle

  • Pits and troughs Troughs seem to start with lines of pits. Layers and dark slope streaks are visible.

Craters

Most of the surface of Mars is over a billion years old. Because Mars has not had active plate tectonics for a very long time (if it ever had active plate tectonics), impact craters stay for a long time. So, impact craters are a major surface feature. There is a rich variety of craters on the planet.[26] [27]

  • This is a fairly young crater as it still shows ejecta, layers, and a rim.

  • Group of secondary craters These are formed from material that is blasted way up in the air from the impact.

  • Crater containing gullies and depressions The curved depressions are formed when the ground loses ice. Gullies may be due to water or dry ice moving down the walls.

  • Crater with pits and holes on floor The shapes on the floor occurred when ice left the ground.

  • Close view of pits on floor of crater A box shows the size of a football field. Note: This is an enlargement of the previous image of a crater.

  • Layered mound in crater Layers represent material that once covered a wide area. Mound was shaped by winds

  • Layered feature in crater in Casius quadrangle These layered features are quite common in some regions of Mars.

  • Wide view of ring-mold crater on the floor of a larger crater

  • Close view of ring-mold craters ( indicated with arrows) Surface between the ring-mold craters is covered with brain terrain.

  • New, small crater We have detected many new craters on Mars that have impacted the planet since good cameras have orbited the planet.

  • Exposed ice in small craters The fresh ice had almost disappeared when the second picture was taken. This set of images is good evidence that ice lies under a thin layer of debris.

  • Pedestal crater The surface was protected from erosion by the ejecta. In the past all the surrounding ground was at the level of the pedestal. Most of the loss is thought to be from the loss of ice.

  • Crater with light streak Streaks associated with craters are quite common on Mars because there is a great deal of fine dust that can be blown around.

Scalloped Terrain

Scalloped topography is common in the mid-latitudes of Mars, between 45° and 60° north and south. It is especially prominent in the region of Utopia Planitia.[28] [29] Such topography consists of shallow, rimless depressions with scalloped edges, commonly referred to as "scalloped depressions" or simply "scallops". Scalloped depressions can be isolated or clustered and sometimes seem to coalesce. The usual scalloped depression displays a gentle equator-facing slope and a steeper pole-facing scarp.[30] Scalloped topography may be of great importance for future colonization of Mars because it may point to deposits of pure ice.[31] [32]

Scalloped terrain in Casius quadrangle

Brain Terrain

Brain terrain is a region of maze-like ridges 3–5 meters high. Some ridges may consist of an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.[33]

  • Labeled picture of open and closed brain terrain in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Wide view of brain terrain in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Brain terrain forming in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

Ribbed terrain

Ribbed terrain forms as ice leaves the ground along cracks in a process called " sublimation." So much of the ground is ice that when the ice disappears the ground collapses.[34]

  • Wide view of ribbed terrain in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Ribbed terrain in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

Linear Ridge Networks

This terrain appears over much of the planet. It consists of groups of narrow ridges that often meet at close to right angles. We are not sure of how it originated. It may have been caused by fluids moving into cracks that were created by impacts. The fluids than became hard and erosion resistant.[35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]

  • Wide view of linear ridge network Location is Casius quadrangle.

  • Close view of linear ridge network Location is Casius quadrangle.

  • Ridge network in Amazonis quadrangle

Yardangs

Yardangs form from fine-grained material. They are shaped by the wind and show the direction of the prevailing winds. Much of this fine-grained material probably has its origin in the many large volcanoes on the planet. Yardangs are especially common in what's called the "Medusae Fossae Formation." This formation is found in the Amazonis quadrangle and near the equator.[42] Because they exhibit very few impact craters they are believed to be relatively young.[43]

  • Yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

  • Wide view of yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

  • Close, color view of yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

Dust Devil Tracks

Dust devil tracks can be very beautiful. They are made by giant dust devils removing bright colored dust from the Martian surface; consequently exposing a dark layer. Dust devils on Mars have been photographed both from the ground and from orbit. They have even blown dust off the solar panels of two Rovers on Mars, thereby greatly extending their useful lifetime.[44] The pattern of the tracks has been shown to change every few months.[45]

Dust devils photographed by Mars Rover Spirit

  • Dust Devil Tracks

  • Dust devil tracks in Hellas quadrangle Dark material is visible in the troughs of polygons.

Dark Slope Streaks

Dark slope streaks are avalanche-like features common on dust-covered slopes, especially in the equatorial regions .[46] They form in relatively steep terrain, such as along cliffs and crater walls.[47] The darkest streaks are only about 10% darker than their surroundings. The streaks seem much darker because of contrast enhancement in the image processing.[48]

Dark slope streaks in trough Layers are also visible in the image.
Close view of dark slope streaks

Lava

Large areas of Mars are covered with lava flows.[49] [50] [51] [52]

  • Lava flows in Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle

  • Rafts of lava in Amazonis quadrangle

  • ”Rootless cones” caused by lava flowing over ice-rich ground in Elysium quadrangle

Mud Volcanoes

Mud volcanoes are very common in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. Because they bring up mud from underground, they may be sources of evidence of life. Being underground the mud was protected from radiation on the surface.

Mud volcanoes in Mare Acidalium quadrangle

Honeycomb Terrain

Honeycomb terrain is found on parts of the floor of Hellas Planitia. It may be due to rising bodies of ice followed by erosion.[53] [54] [55]

Honeycomb terrain in Hellas quadrangle

Fractured Surface and Blocks

In many places on Mars bedrock breaks up into large blocks. Sometimes the blocks from what looks like perfect cubes. Although one may think these shapes had to be made by intelligent aliens, this is a natural process. The salt you put on your food also breaks up into cubes. Check your salt out with a magnifying glass.

Rock breaking up into cube-shaped blocks

Fractured Ground

Some places on Mars break up with large fractures that create a terrain with mesas and valleys. Some of these can be quite pretty.

  • Wide view of fractured ground

  • Close view of fractured ground

Dipping layers

Groups of layers that are tilted are common in some areas of Mars. They represent material that once covered a wide area.[56] [57] The layers may be related to changes in the climate in the past. They may have been shaped by the wind.

  • Wide view of layered features in Hellas quadrangle

  • Close view of layered features in Hellas quadrangle Each layer may represent a change in the climate.

  • Tilted layers in Ismenius Lacus These sets of layers can often be seen leaning against slopes.

Boulders

Much of the surface of Mars is covered with hard, basalt volcanic rock. When the rock breaks down it often forms large boulders the size of houses.

  • Fractures with boulders in low areas in Elysium quadrangle Box shows size of football field.

  • Color view of boulders

  • Close view of dunes showing boulders with arrows If you click on image to enlarge, you can see the tracks left by the boulders as they traveled down the dune.

Hollows

Some places on Mars have surfaces that are covered with hollows. Sometimes they form large holes, sometimes curved canyons. They can be pretty and would be fun to explore on foot in the future. This terrain may have developed from what has been called ribbed terrain. Either way, these scenes were caused as ice left the ground.

  • Wide view of hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground

  • Close color view of hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground

  • Hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground Location is Hellas Montes Region.

Mesas

Many, large areas of Mars have eroded such that there are many mesas. Some show layers. Mesas show how the kind of material that covered a wide area. Mesas are what are left after the ground is mostly eroded.

  • Mesa with box showing size of football field

  • Layered mesa with box showing size of football field

  • Mesa that is 14 km or 8.7 miles around the outside

Landslides

Mars shows various mass movements like landslides. There are many steep slopes for material to move down, especially in craters and canyons.

  • Landslide

  • Landslide

Latitude Dependent Mantle

Latitude Dependent Mantle is very common in certain latitudes.[58] It often appears as a smooth covering. A certain percentage of it consists of ice. It may be a major source of water for future colonists because it has a widespread distribution. Sometimes mantle displays layers because it was deposited at different times.

  • Comparison of terrain with and without a covering of mantle

  • Mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view that displays the thickness of the mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Mantle layers with layers

Swiss Cheese Terrain

Parts of Mare Australe show pits that make the surface look like Swiss cheese.[59] [60] [61] [62] These pits are in a 1-10 meter thick layer of dry ice that lies on a much larger water ice cap. These circular pits have steep walls that work to focus sunlight, thereby increasing erosion. For a pit to develop a steep wall of about 10 cm and a length of over 5 meters in necessary.[63]

Swiss Cheese Terrain near South Pole, as seen by HiRISE

Ice Cap Layers

The northern ice cap of Mars displays many layers of ice that accumulated when the climate changed. These are visible when there is a canyon in the ice.

  • Layers exposed in ice cap in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Layers exposed in ice cap in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Layers in northern ice cap Some of the layers are at different angles because erosion took away some layers to the right.

Spiders

As the temperature goes up in the spring, pressurized carbon dioxide gas and dark dust are released from under slabs of ice. This results in the appearance of dark plumes that are often blown in one direction by local winds. This dust darkens channel s under the ice and forms dark shapes that resemble spiders.[64] [65] [66] [67]

Spiders and plumes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Polygonal Patterned Ground

Many surfaces on Mars display “polygonal patterned ground.” The polygons can be of different shapes and sizes. They are believed to be caused by ice in the ground. These may still be another marker for underground ice that could be used by future colonists.

  • Wide view of large and small polygons

  • High center polygons

  • Close, color view of polygons

Notes about pictures

Most pictures from spacecraft have some sort of enhancement. For many views of Mars there is not much contrast so the contrast is enhanced in a process known as stretching. The darkest parts are set to black while the lightest parts are set to be white. The colors for HiRISE images are different than the human eye would see. HiRISE only sees in only 3 colors and sometimes infrared is used rather than red. Displaying colors in this way allows us to better identify rocks and minerals. HiRISE images are about 5 km wide with a 1 km wide band in the center that is in color.[68]

References

  1. ↑ Lorenz, R. and J. Zimbelman. 2014. Dune Worlds How Windblown Sand Shapes Planetary Landscapes. Springer. NY.
  2. ↑ url=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?PSP_008437_1750 |title=HiRISE | High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment |publisher=Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?psp_008437_1750
  3. ↑ Head, J. W.; et al. (2006). "Extensive valley glacier deposits in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for Late Amazonian obliquity-driven climate change". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 241 (3): 663–671.
  4. ↑ Head, J. and D. Marchant. 2006. Evidence for global-scale northern mid-latitude glaciation in the Amazonian period of Mars: Debris-covered glacial and valley glacial deposits in the 30 - 50 N latitude band. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1127
  5. ↑ Head, J. and D. Marchant. 2006. Modifications of the walls of a Noachian crater in Northern Arabia Terra (24 E, 39 N) during northern mid-latitude Amazonian glacial epochs on Mars: Nature and evolution of Lobate Debris Aprons and their relationships to lineated valley fill and glacial systems. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1128
  6. ↑ Head, J., et al. 2006. Extensive valley glacier deposits in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for the late Amazonian obliquity-driven climate change. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 241. 663-671
  7. ↑ Head, J., et al. 2006. Modification if the dichotomy boundary on Mars by Amazonian mid-latitude regional glaciation. Geophys. Res Lett. 33
  8. ↑ Garvin, J. et al. 2002. Lunar Planet. Sci: 33. Abstract # 1255.
  9. ↑ http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA09662
  10. ↑ Carr, M. 2006. The Surface of Mars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN|978-0-521-87201-0
  11. ↑ Squyres, S. 1978. Martian fretted terrain: Flow of erosional debris. Icarus: 34. 600-613.
  12. ↑ Levy, J. et al. 2007. Lineated valley fill and lobate debris apron stratigraphy in Nilosyrtis Mensae, Mars: Evidence for phases of glacial modification of the dichotomy boundary. J. Geophys. Res. 112
  13. ↑ Baker, D., et al. 2009. Flow patterns of lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill north of Ismeniae Fossae, Mars: Evidence for extensive mid-latitude glaciation in the Late Amazonian. Icarus: 207. 186-209.
  14. ↑ Marchant, D. and J. Head. 2007. Antarctic dry valleys: Microclimate zonation, variable geomorphic processes, and implications for assessing climatic change on Mars. Icarus: 192.187-222
  15. ↑ Dickson, J., et al. 2008. Late Amazonian glaciation at the dichotomy boundary on Mars: Evidence for glacial thickness maxima and multiple glacial phases. Geology: 36 (5) 411-415
  16. ↑ Kress, A., et al. 2006. The nature of the transition from lobate debris aprons to lineated valley fill: Mamers Valles, Northern Arabia Terra-Deuteronilus Mensae region on Mars. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1323
  17. ↑ Malin, M., Edgett, K. 2000. Evidence for recent groundwater seepage and surface runoff on Mars. Science 288, 2330–2335.
  18. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outflow_channels
  19. ↑ Carr, M.H. (2006), The Surface of Mars. Cambridge Planetary Science Series, Cambridge University Press.
  20. ↑ Baker, V.R.; Carr, M.H.; Gulick, V.C.; Williams, C.R. & Marley, M.S. "Channels and Valley Networks". In Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W. & Matthews, M.S. Mars. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
  21. ↑ Burr, D.M., McEwan, A.S., and Sakimoto, S.E. (2002). "Recent aqueous floods from the Cerberus Fossae, Mars". Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(1), 10.1029/2001G1013345.
  22. ↑ ^ Baker, V.R. (1982). The Channels of Mars. Austin: Texas University Press.
  23. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossa_(geology)
  24. ↑ James W. Head; Lionel Wilson; Karl L. Mitchell (2003). "Generation of recent massive water floods at Cerberus Fossae, Mars by dike emplacement, cryospheric cracking, and confined aquifer groundwater release". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (11): 2265. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30k..31H. doi:10.1029/2003GL017135
  25. ↑ Burr, D. et al. 2002. Repeated aqueous flooding from the Cerberus Fossae: evidence for very recently extant deep groundwater on Mars. Icarus. 159: 53-73.
  26. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars
  27. ↑ Carr, M.H. (2006) The surface of Mars; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK
  28. ↑ "HiRISE observations of periglacial landforms in Utopia Planitia" (2009). Journal of Geophysical Research 114. doi:10.1029/2008JE003264. Bibcode: 2009JGRE..114.4005L. 
  29. ↑ Morgenstern A, Hauber E, Reiss D, van Gasselt S, Grosse G, Schirrmeister L (2007): Deposition and degradation of a volatile-rich layer in Utopia Planitia, and implications for climate history on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 112, E06010.
  30. ↑ http://www.uahirise.org/ESP_038821_1235
  31. ↑ {{cite journal | last1 = Dundas | first1 = C. | last2 = Bryrne | first2 = S. | last3 = McEwen | first3 = A. | year = 2015 | title = Modeling the development of martian sublimation thermokarst landforms | url = | journal = Icarus | volume = 262 | issue = | pages = 154–169 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.07.033
  32. ↑ Baker, D., J. Head. 2015. Extensive Middle Amazonian mantling of debris aprons and plains in Deuteronilus Mensae, Mars: Implication for the record of mid-latitude glaciation. Icarus: 260, 269-288.
  33. ↑ Levy, J., J. Head, D. Marchant. 2009. Concentric crater fill in Utopia Planitia: History and interaction between glacial “brain terrain” and periglacial mantle processes. Icarus 202, 462–476.
  34. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Plains_Unit
  35. ↑ Head, J., J. Mustard. 2006. Breccia dikes and crater-related faults in impact craters on Mars: Erosion and exposure on the floor of a crater 75 km in diameter at the dichotomy boundary, Meteorit. Planet Science: 41, 1675-1690.
  36. ↑ Moore, J., D. Wilhelms. 2001. Hellas as a possible site of ancient ice-covered lakes on Mars. Icarus: 154, 258-276.
  37. ↑ Mangold et al. 2007. Mineralogy of the Nili Fossae region with OMEGA/Mars Express data: 2. Aqueous alteration of the crust. J. Geophys. Res., 112, doi:10.1029/2006JE002835.
  38. ↑ Kerber, L., et al. 2017. Polygonal ridge networks on Mars: Diversity of morphologies and the special case of the Eastern Medusae Fossae Formation. Icarus: 281, 200-219.
  39. ↑ E. K. Ebinger E., J. Mustard. 2015. LINEAR RIDGES IN THE NILOSYRTIS REGION OF MARS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SUBSURFACE FLUID FLOW. 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2015) 2034.pdf
  40. ↑ Saper, L., J. Mustard. 2013. Extensive linear ridge networks in Nili Fossae and Nilosyrtis, Mars: implications for fluid flow in the ancient crust. Geophysical Research letters: 40, 245-249.
  41. ↑ Kerber L., Schwamb M., Portyankina G. Hansen C. J. Aye K.-M. Global Polygonal Ridge Networks: Evidence for Pervasive Noachian Crustal Groundwater Circulation [#2972]. pdf49th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2018 (LPI Contrib. No. 2083). 2972.pdf49th
  42. ↑ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979JGR....84.8147W SAO/NASA ADS Astronomy Abstract Service: Yardangs on Mars
  43. ↑ http://themis.asu.edu/zoom-20020416a
  44. ↑ http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/spirit/20070412a.html Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Press Release Images: Spirit. Marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov
  45. ↑ http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_005383_1255
  46. ↑ Chuang, F.C.; Beyer, R.A.; Bridges, N.T. (2010). Modification of Martian Slope Streaks by Eolian Processes. Icarus, 205 154–164.
  47. ↑ Schorghofer, N.; Aharonson, O.; Khatiwala, S. 2002. Slope Streaks on Mars: Correlations with Surface Properties and the Potential Role of Water. Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(23), 2126.
  48. ↑ Sullivan, R. et al. 2001. Mass Movement Slope Streaks Imaged by the Mars Orbiter Camera. J. Geophys. Res., 106(E10), 23,607–23,633.
  49. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology_of_Mars
  50. ↑ Head, J.W. 2007. The Geology of Mars: New Insights and Outstanding Questions in The Geology of Mars: Evidence from Earth-Based Analogs, Chapman, M., Ed; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge UK
  51. ↑ Carr, Michael H. (1973). "Volcanism on Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research. 78 (20): 4049–4062.
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  54. ↑ Weiss, D., J. Head. 2017. HYDROLOGY OF THE HELLAS BASIN AND THE EARLY MARS CLIMATE: WAS THE HONEYCOMB TERRAIN FORMED BY SALT OR ICE DIAPIRISM? Lunar and Planetary Science XLVIII. 1060.pdf
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  60. ↑ Thomas, P., P. James, W. Calvin, R. Haberle, M. Malin. 2009. Residual south polar cap of Mars: stratigraphy, history, and implications of recent changes Icarus: 203, 352–375 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2009.05.014
  61. ↑ Thomas, P., W.Calvin, P. Gierasch, R. Haberle, P. James, S. Sholes. 2013. Time scales of erosion and deposition recorded in the residual south polar cap of mars Icarus: 225: 923–932 http://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2012.08.038
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  63. ↑ Buhler, Peter, Andrew Ingersoll, Bethany Ehlmann, Caleb Fassett, James Head. 2017. How the martian residual south polar cap develops quasi-circular and heart-shaped pits, troughs, and moats. Icarus: 286, 69-9.
  64. ↑ Kieffer H, Christensen P, Titus T. 2006 Aug 17. CO2 jets formed by sublimation beneath translucent slab ice in Mars' seasonal south polar ice cap. Nature: 442(7104):793-6.
  65. ↑ https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/possible-development-stages-of-martian-spiders/
  66. ↑ http://themis.asu.edu/news/gas-jets-spawn-dark-spiders-and-spots-mars-icecap
  67. ↑ http://spaceref.com/mars/how-gas-carves-channels-on-mars.html
  68. ↑ McEwen, A., et al. 2017. Mars The Prestine Beauty of the Red Planet. University of Arizona Press. Tucson

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