Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

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MC-05 Ismenius Lacus 30–65° N 0–60° E Quadrangles Atlas

  • Elevations

  • PIA00165-Mars-MC-5-IsmeniusLacusRegion-19980604.jpg


This quadrangle has some of the most mysterious-looking landscapes on the planet. It truly looks like another world here. Strong evidence of a past ocean on Mars exists in this region and is described below. The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle contains regions called Deuteronilus Mensae and Protonilus Mensae, two places that are of special interest to scientists. They contain abundant evidence of present and past glacial activity. They also have a landscape unique to Mars, called Fretted terrain. The largest crater in the area is Lyot Crater, which contains channels probably carved by liquid water.[1]

The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle is located in the northern hemisphere and covers 30° to 65° north latitude and 300° to 360° west longitude (60° to 0° east longitude). The southern and northern borders of the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle are approximately 3065 km (1,905 mi) and 1500 km wide (930 mi) respectively. The north-to-south distance is about 2050 km (1,270 mi) (a bit less than the length of Greenland).[2] The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle contains parts of regions named Acidalia Planitia, Arabia Terra, Vastitas Borealis, and Terra Sabaea.[3]

In this article, some of the best pictures from a number of spacecraft will show what the landscape looks like in this region. The origins and significance of all features will be explained as they are currently understood.

Origin of names

Ismenius Lacus is the name of a classical albedo feature located at 40° N and 30° E on Mars. Like most names for Martian places, Ismenius comes from old myths and stories. The term is Latin for Ismenian Lake, and refers to the Ismenian Spring near Thebes in Greece where Cadmus slew the guardian dragon. Cadmus was the legendary founder of Thebes, and had come to the spring to fetch water. The name was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1958.[4] All names suggested for astronomical features have to eventually approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

Some important areas in this quadrangle derive from the names of canals that some early astronomers saw in this broad area. One such large canal they called Nilus. Since 1881–1882 it was split into other canals, some were called Nilosyrtis, Protonilus (first Nile),and Deuteronilus (second Nile).[5]

Ocean

Channels that may have been made by the backwash of tsunamis in an ocean Image is from HiRISE under the HiWish program

Channels made by the backwash from tsunamis, tsunamis were probably caused by asteroids striking an ocean. Image is from HiRISE under the HiWish program

Many researchers have suggested that Mars once had a great ocean in the north.[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Much evidence for this ocean has been gathered over several decades. New evidence was published in May 2016. A large team of scientists described how some of the surface in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle was altered by two tsunamis. The tsunamis were caused by asteroids striking the ocean. Both were thought to have been strong enough to create 30 km diameter craters. The first tsunami picked up and carried boulders the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 to 120 meters. So, some large waves would have gone over a 36 story building.[13] Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that a great northern ocean may have existed for millions of years. One argument against an ocean has been the lack of shoreline features. These features may have been washed away by these tsunami events. The parts of Mars studied in this research are Chryse Planitia and northwestern Arabia Terra. These tsunamis affected some surfaces in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle and in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle.[14] [15] [16] [17]


  • Channels made by the backwash from tsunamis, Tsunamis were probably caused by asteroids striking the ocean.

  • Possible backwash channels that may have been created by a tsunami, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Boulders that were picked up, carried, and dropped by tsunamis Tsunamis were probably caused by asteroids striking ocean. Boulders in picture are between the size of cars and houses.

  • Streamlined promontory eroded by tsunami Tsunamis were probably caused by asteroids striking ocean.

  • Concentric bands that may have been produced by the waves of a tsunami. Image is from HiRISE under the HiWish program.

Channels (Rivers)

Meanders Meanders are commonly formed in old river systems when the water is moving slowly. 

               Meanders   They are formed in old river systems when the water is moving slowly.

Many features were probably rivers with water flowing in them billions of years ago. Pictures below show many channels and parts of channels.


The channel shown below goes quite a long distance and has branches. It ends in a depression that may have been a lake at one time. The first picture is a wide angle, taken with CTX; while the second is a close up taken with HiRISE.[18]


  • Channels in Arabia, as seen by CTX This channel winds along for a good distance and has branches. It ends in a depression that may have been a lake at one time.

  • Channel in Arabia, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. This is an enlargement of the previous image that was taken with CTX to give a wide view.

Some places (like below) display a smaller channel within a larger, wider channel or valley. When this occurs it means water went through the region at least two times in the past. This implies that water was not just here once for a short period of time.

  • Channel within larger channel The existence of the smaller channel suggests water went through the region at least two times in the past.

  • Close-up of channel within larger channel The existence of the smaller channel suggests water went through the region at least two times in the past. The black box represents the size of a football field. Some parts of the surface would be difficult to walk on with the many small hills and depressions.

  • Channel system that travels through part of a crater

  • Channel that cut through a crater rim

  • Channel system that travels through part of a crater Note: this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Channel that travels through part of a crater The arrow shows a crater that was eroded by the channel. Note: this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Channels

  • Wide view of channels

  • Close view of channel

  • Channel that has cut through a crater rim

  • Wide view of channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Wide view of channels

  • Channel

  • Wide view of channels

  • Channel with hanging valley

  • Wide view of channels

  • Wide view of channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channel

  • Channels

  • Channels with one leading to a lake This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Old stream bed attached to low area that was probably a lake.

  • Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channels, Some parts of the image show mantle and others show no mantle covering the surface.

  • Possible inverted channel Here after a stream bed got filled with erosion resistant materials, the surrounding, softer landscape eroded away.

  • Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of channel, as seen by HiRISE

  • Channels The ends of the channels have shapes that suggest they were formed by the process of sapping.

  • Channels These channels are in the ejecta of a crater; hence, they may have formed from warm ejecta melting ground ice.

  • Close vies of channel with scale

  • Channel near ejecta


Channels that empty into a low area that could have been a lake, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 

            Channels that empty into a possible lake, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Lyot Crater

The vast northern plains of Mars are generally flat and smooth with few craters. However, a few large craters do stand out. The giant impact crater, Lyot, is easy to see in the northern part of Ismenius Lacus. There are only a very few craters along the far northern latitudes.[19] Lyot Crater is the deepest point in Mars's northern hemisphere.[20] One image below of Lyot Crater Dunes shows a variety of interesting forms: dark dunes, light-toned deposits, and Dust Devil Tracks. Dust devils, which resemble miniature tornados, create tracks by removing a thin, but bright deposit of dust to reveal the darker underlying surface. It does not take too much fine dust to cover those tracks--experiments in Earth laboratories demonstrate that only a few 10's of microns of dust will do the trick. Note on units: a micron is an older name for micrometre or micrometer. The width of a single human hair ranges from approximately 20 to 200 microns (μm); hence, the dust that can cover dust devil tracks may only be the thickness of a human hair.[21] Light-toned materials are an important find because they are widely believed to contain minerals formed in water. Research, published in June 2010, described evidence for liquid water in Lyot crater in the past.

Many channels have been found near Lyot Crater. Research, published in 2017, concluded that the channels were made from water released when the hot ejecta landed on a layer of ice that was 20 to 300 meters thick. Calculations suggest that the ejecta would have had a temperature of at least 250 degrees Fahrenheit. The valleys seem to start from beneath the ejecta near the outer edge of the ejecta. The existence of these channels is unusual because although Mars used to have water in rivers, lakes, and an ocean; channels in Lyot came after we had thought that Mars had dried up. So Mars had flowing water later then we believed.[22] [23] [24]

Wide view of channels in Lyot Crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Wide view of channels in Lyot Crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of channels in Lyot Crater

  • Close view of channels in Lyot Crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Lyot Crater Dunes, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see light-toned deposits and dust devil tracks.

  • Channel

Other craters

Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them; in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter), they usually have a central peak.[25] The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.[26] Sometimes craters will display layers in their walls. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters are useful for showing us what lies deep under the surface.

  • Fresh crater This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Fresh crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This is a young crater because one can easily see the rim and ejecta. They have not yet been eroded.

  • West side of Sinton Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter) A central peak is visible--it occurs in larger craters and is caused by a rebound from the force of the impact.

  • Crater with a bench A crater with a bench may be formed from settling of the crater wall or it may be due to impact into something with vastly different types of layers.

  • Double crater. Box indicates the size of a football field in this scene. This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Possible expanded secondary craters, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program These craters may have become much wider, as ice left the ground around the rims.[27] [28]

  • Impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Impact crater that may have formed in ice-rich ground Note that the ejecta seems lower than the surroundings. The hot ejecta may have caused some of the ice to go away; thus lowering the level of the ejecta.

  • Pedestal crater The crater's ejecta protected the underlying ground from eroding.

  • Pedestal crater Mesa on the crater floor formed after the crater.

  • Cerulli Crater It looks like a delta was formed as channels bought in debris and dumped then in a lake that was in the crater.

  • Group of layers in crater

  • Wide view of craters with strange deposits, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of crater with strange, layered deposit, as seen by HiRISE

  • close view of crater with strange layered deposit

  • Crater with mesa. First the crater was formed. Later material was deposited in the area. That material was eroded all over, except in this crater. This image was named HiRISE picture of the day for January 18, 2024.

Northeast rim of Quenisset Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Arrows indicate old glaciers. |Northeast rim of Quenisset Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Arrows indicate old glaciers.

Deltas

Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Deltas are major signs that Mars once had a lot of water because deltas usually require deep water over a long period of time to form. In addition, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below, is a pictures of a one in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle.[29]

  • Delta in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, as seen by THEMIS.


Fretted terrain

The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle contains several interesting features such as fretted terrain, parts of which are found in Deuteronilus Mensae and Protonilus Mensae. Fretted terrain contains smooth, flat lowlands along with steep cliffs. The scarps or cliffs are usually 1 to 2 km high. Channels in the area have wide, flat floors and steep walls. Many buttes and mesas are present. In fretted terrain the land seems to transition from narrow straight valleys to isolated mesas.[30] Most of the mesas are surrounded by forms that have been called a variety of names: circum-mesa aprons, debris aprons, rock glaciers, and lobate debris apron (LDA)s. The flat floors here often display many lines or lineations that scientists call lineated valley fill (LVF). These are caused by glacier-like flow. [31] At first they appeared to resemble rock glaciers on Earth. But scientists could not be sure. Even after the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) took a variety of pictures of fretted terrain, experts could not tell for sure if material was moving or flowing as it would in an ice-rich deposit (glacier). Eventually, proof of their true nature was discovered by radar studies with the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed that they contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice.[32] [33]

  • Fretted terrain of Ismenius Lacus showing flat floored valleys and cliffs. Photo taken with Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) on the Mars Global Surveyor, under the MOC Public Targeting Program. The white rectangle indicates the position of a high resolution image.

  • Enlargement of the photo on the left showing cliff. Photo taken with high-resolution camera of Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), under the MOC Public Targeting Program.

  • Wide view of mesa with CTX showing cliff face and location of lobate debris apron (LDA).

  • Enlargement of previous CTX image of mesa. This image shows the cliff face and detail in the LDA. Image taken with HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of lineated valley fill (LVF) Note: this is an enlargement of the previous CTX image.

  • Example of frettered terrain Fretted terrain contains many wide, flat-floored valleys.

Wide CTX view showing mesa and buttes with lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill around them. Wide CTX view showing mesa and buttes with lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill around them. These are typical features of fretted terrain

Glaciers

Flow, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 

                 Glacier, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

The Ismenius Lacus quadrangle might well be called the land of glaciers. Glaciers formed much of the observable surface in large areas of Mars. Much of the area in high latitudes, especially the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, is believed to still contain enormous amounts of water ice.[34] [35] [36] In March 2010, scientists released the results of a radar study of an area called Deuteronilus Mensae that found widespread evidence of ice lying beneath a few meters of rock debris.[37] The ice was probably deposited as snowfall during an earlier climate when the poles were tilted more.[38] It would be difficult to take a hike on the fretted terrain where glaciers are common because the surface is folded, pitted, and often covered with linear striations.[39] The striations show the direction of movement. Much of this rough texture is due to sublimation of buried ice. The ice goes directly into a gas (this process is called sublimation) and leaves behind an empty space. Overlying material then collapses into the void.[40] Glaciers are not pure ice; they contain dirt and rocks. At times, they will dump their load of materials into ridges. Such ridges are called moraines.

  • The arrow in the left picture points to a possibly valley carved by a glacier. The image on the right shows the same valley greatly enlarged in a Mars Global Surveyor image.

  • Romer Lake's Elephant Foot Glacier in the Earth's Arctic, as seen by Landsat 8. This picture shows several glaciers that have the same shape as many features on Mars that are believed to also be glaciers.

  • Glacier coming out of valley Location is rim of Moreux Crater.

  • Flow

  • Glaciers moving from valleys in a mesa

  • Two glaciers interacting The one on the left is more recent and is flowing on top of the other one.

  • Glacier interacting with an obstacle

  • Glacier flowing out of valley

  • Ridge that is probably from an old glacier

  • Lineated valley fill, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Close view of Lineated valley fill

  • Close, color view of Lineated valley fill

  • Lineated valley fill in valley

  • Lineated valley fill in valley Linear valley fill is ice covered by debris.

  • Close, color view of lineated valley fill

  • Probable glacier Radar studies have found that it is made up of almost completely pure ice. It appears to be moving from the high ground (a mesa) on the right.

  • Mesa in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, as seen by CTX. Mesa has several glaciers eroding it. One of the glaciers is seen in greater detail in the next two images from HiRISE.

  • Glacier as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. Area in rectangle is enlarged in the next photo. Zone of accumulation of snow at the top. Glacier is moving down valley, then spreading out on plain. Evidence for flow comes from the many lines on surface. Location is in Protonilus Mensae.

  • Enlargement of area in rectangle of the previous image. On Earth the ridge would be called the terminal moraine of an alpine glacier.

  • Remains of a glacier after ice has disappeared

  • Lobate debris aprons (LDAs) around a mesa, as seen by CTX Mesa and LDAs are labeled so one can see their relationship. Radar studies have determined that LDAs contain ice; therefore these can be important for future colonists of Mars.

  • Wide CTX view of mesa showing lobate debris apron (LDA) and lineated valley fill. Both are believed to be debris-covered glaciers.

Close-up of lobate debris apron from the previous CTX image of a mesa. Image shows open-cell brain terrain and closed-cell brain terrain, which is more common. Closed-cell brain terrain is thought to hold a core of ice. Close-up of lobate debris apron from the previous CTX image of a mesa. Image shows open-cell brain terrain and closed-cell brain terrain, which is more common. Closed-cell brain terrain is thought to hold a core of ice.

Wide and close views of LDA 


                                Wide and close views of LDA


  • Lobate debris apron around mesa

  • Close view of lobate debris apron around mesa Brain terrain is visible.

  • Glaciers moving in two different valleys

  • Wide view of flow moving down valley

  • Close view of part of glacier Box shows size of football field.

  • Flow and mantle Mantle appears as layers against the cliff face.

  • Wide view of tongue-shaped glacier and lineated valley fill

  • Tongue-shaped glacier Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image

  • Close view of tongue-shaped glacier Surface is broken up into cubes.

Latitude dependent mantle

Much of the Martian surface is covered with a thick ice-rich, mantle layer that has fallen from the sky a number of times in the past.[41] [42] [43]

  • Close view of mantle Arrows show craters along edge which highlight the thickness of mantle.

  • Close view that displays the thickness of mantle.

  • Mantle and flow A part of the image showing the mantle is enlarged in the next image.

  • Mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of mantle

  • Close view of mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Color view of mantle Some parts of the image are covered with mantle; other parts are not.

  • Mantle layers lying against steep slopes. Each layer represents a change in the climate of Mars.

  • Mantle layers Mantle layers seem to be forming a group of dipping layers.

Climate change caused ice-rich features

Many features on Mars, especially ones found in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, are believed to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees[44] [45] Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars.

Studies have shown that when the tilt of Mars reaches 45 degrees from its current 25 degrees, ice is no longer stable at the poles.[46] Furthermore, at this high tilt, stores of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimate, thereby increasing the atmospheric pressure. This increased pressure allows more dust to be held in the atmosphere. Moisture in the atmosphere will fall as snow or as ice frozen onto dust grains. Calculations suggest this material will concentrate in the mid-latitudes, like those of the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle.[47] [48] General circulation models of the Martian atmosphere predict accumulations of ice-rich dust in the same areas where ice-rich features are found.[49] When the tilt begins to return to lower values, the ice sublimates (turns directly to a gas) and leaves behind a lag of dust.[50] [51] The lag deposit caps the underlying material so with each cycle of high tilt levels, some ice-rich mantle remains behind.[52] Note, that the smooth surface mantle layer probably represents only relative recent material.

Upper Plains Unit

Remnants of a 50–100 meter thick mantling, called the Upper Plains Unit, has been discovered in the mid-latitudes of Mars. It was first investigated in the Deuteronilus Mensae region, but it occurs in other places as well. The remnants consist of sets of dipping layers in craters and along mesas.[53] [54] Sets of dipping layers may be of various sizes and shapes—some look like Aztec pyramids from Central America.

  • Wide view showing contact between upper plains unit lower part of picture and a lower unit, as seen by CTX

  • Contact Upper plains unit on the left is breaking up. A lower unit exists on the right side of picture.

  • Close view of contact Picture shows details of how upper plains material is breaking. The formation of many fractures seems to proceed the break up.

  • Wide view of upper plains unit eroding into hollows Parts of this image are enlarged in following images.

  • Close view of upper plain unit eroding into hollows Break up begins with cracks on the surface that expand as more and more ice disappears from the ground.

  • Close view of hollows

Associated with this unit are dipping layers. However, these groups of layers are found in many locations around the planet. They may be mostly caused by the build up and later erosion of layers of mantle. Mantle has been built up from many climate changes. These "dipping layers" occur mainly in protected spots--like inside craters or against the steep slope of a mesa or the walls of a depression.

  • Wide view of dipping layers along mesa walls

  • Close view of dipping layers along a mesa wall

  • Dipping layers

  • Dipping layers in a crater

  • Layered feature in Red Rocks Park, Colorado. This has a different origin than ones on Mars, but it has a similar shape. Features in Red Rocks region were caused by uplift of mountains.

  • Close view of dipping layers Brain terrain is also visible in the image.

This unit also degrades into "brain terrain." Brain terrain is a region of maze-like ridges 3–5 meters high. The closed cell brain terrain may still hold an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.

  • Brain terrain, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Open and closed brain terrain with labels The closed cell brain terrain may still hold an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.

  • Brain terrain being formed from a thicker layer Arrows show the thicker unit breaking up into small cells.

  • Brain terrain being formed Arrows point to locations where the brain terrain is starting to form.

  • Brain terrain being formed, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Brain terrain being formed Note: this is an enlargement of a previous image using HiView. Arrows indicate spots where brain terrain is beginning to form.

  • Wide view of brain terrain being formed, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Brain terrain with a view from the side Arrow shows where a side view of the brain terrain is visible.

Some regions of the upper plains unit display large fractures and troughs with raised rims; such regions are called ribbed upper plains. Fractures are believed to have started with small cracks from stresses. Stress is suggested to initiate the fracture process since ribbed upper plains are common when debris aprons come together or near the edge of debris aprons—such sites would generate compressional stresses. Cracks exposed more surfaces, and consequently more ice in the material sublimates into the planet's thin atmosphere. Eventually, small cracks become large canyons or troughs.

  • Well developed ribbed upper plains material. These start with small cracks that expand as ice sublimates from the surfaces of the crack.

  • Small and large cracks The small cracks to the left will enlarge to become much larger due to sublimation of ground ice. A crack exposes more surface area, hence greatly increases sublimation in the thin Martian air.

  • Close-up of canyons from previous image

View of stress cracks and larger cracks that have been enlarged by sublimation (ice changing directly into gas) This may be the start of ribbed terrain. View of stress cracks and larger cracks that have been enlarged by sublimation (ice changing directly into gas) This may be the start of ribbed terrain.


  • Dipping layers Also, Ribbed Upper plains material is visible in the upper right of the picture. It is forming from the upper plains unit, and in turn is being eroded into brain terrain.[55] [56]

  • Ribbed terrain being formed from upper plains unit, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Formation begins with cracks that enhance sublimation. Box shows the size of football field.

  • Surface breaking down, as ice is removed Box shows size of football field.

  • Wide view of terrain caused by ice leaving the ground

  • Close view of terrain caused by ice leaving the ground

  • Wide view of terrain caused by ice leaving the ground


Close view of terrain caused by ice leaving the ground Box shows size of football field. Close view of terrain caused by ice leaving the ground Box shows size of football field.

Small cracks often contain small pits and chains of pits; these are thought to be from sublimation of ice in the ground.[57] [58] Large areas of the Martian surface are loaded with ice that is protected by a meters thick layer of dust and other material. However, if cracks appear, a fresh surface will expose ice to the thin atmosphere.[59] [60] In a short time, the ice will disappear into the cold, thin atmosphere in a process called "sublimation." Dry ice behaves in a similar fashion on the Earth. On Mars sublimation has been observed when the Phoenix lander uncovered chunks of ice that disappeared in a few days.[61] [62] In addition, HiRISE has seen fresh craters with ice at the bottom. After a time, HiRISE saw the ice deposit disappear.[63]


The upper plains unit is thought to have fallen from the sky. It drapes various surfaces, since it fell evenly onto all surfaces. As is the case for other mantle deposits, the upper plains unit has layers, is fine-grained, and is ice-rich. It is widespread; it does not seem to have a point source. The surface appearance of some regions of Mars is due to how this unit has degraded. It is a major cause of the surface appearance of lobate debris aprons.[64] The layering of the upper plains mantling unit and other mantling units are believed to be caused by major changes in the planet's climate. Models predict that the obliquity or tilt of the rotational axis has varied from its present 25 degrees to maybe over 80 degrees over geological time. Periods of high tilt will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere.[65] [66] [67]

Dipping layers

Scattered around Mars are features that have been called "dipping layers." They are groups of layers in protected place like inside of craters or against slopes. Several ideas have been advanced for how they were formed.[68] The material that formed them may have dropped from the sky as ice-rich dust.[69] [70] [71] They once covered a wide area, but erosion has since removed most of the material. Another idea for their origin was presented at 55th LPSC (2024) by an international team of researchers. They suggest that the layers are from past ice sheets.[72]

  • Wide view of dipping layers, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. The dark strip is where a computer problem is preventing the gathering of data.

  • Group of dipping layers. Each layer represents a change in the Martian climate.

  • Remaining parts of a group of dipping layers. Erosion has removed most of the material.

  • Close view of dipping layers that show the thin nature of the layers.

  • Several sets of dipping layers This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Close view of dipping layers Each layer was deposited when the climate changed. These layers only appear in protected areas.

Pits and cracks

  • CTX Image in Protonilus Mensae, showing location of next image.

  • Pits in Protonilus Mensae, as seen by HiRISE, under the HiWish program.

Close view of lines of pits Box shows size of football field. Pits may be up to around 50 meters across.

Close view of lines of pits Box shows size of football field. Pits may be up to around 50 meters across.


  • Close view of pits and polygons, as seen by HiRISE Pits seem to occur in low spots between polygons.

  • Close view of pits, as seen by HiRISE, under the HiWish program

Mesas formed by ground collapse

  • Group of mesas Oval box contains mesas that may have moved apart.

  • Enlarged view of a group of mesas One surface is forming square shapes.

Polygonal patterned ground

Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars.[73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] It is commonly believed to be a marker for ice-rich ground because these shapes are common on the Earth in cold regions with lots of ice in the ground.

With the changing seasons, alternate cooling and warming causes the ice-cemented soil to contract and expand. With the right conditions, cracks are made into the hard frozen ground releasing the stresses caused by contraction.[80]

Places on Mars that display polygonal ground may indicate where future colonists can find water ice. Patterned ground forms in a mantle layer, called latitude dependent mantle, that fell from the sky when the climate was different.[81] [82]

  • Close-up of field of high center polygons with scale Note: the black box is the size of a football field.

  • Close-up of high center polygons Note: the black box is the size of a football field.

Low center polygons 

                             Low center polygons


  • Wide view of high center polygons

  • Close view of high center polygons Centers of polygons are labeled.

  • Large polygons

Gullies

Gullies were thought for a time to have been caused by recent flows of liquid water.[83] However, further study suggests they are formed today by chunks of dry ice moving down steep slopes.[84]

  • Gullies in crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of channel in gully showing streamlined forms

  • Gullies

  • Close view of gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of gullies

Layered features

  • Layers

  • Layered mesas

  • Close view of layers

Dunes

Wide view of a field of dunes 

                      Wide view of a field of dunes

Sand dunes have been found in many places on Mars. The presence of dunes shows that the planet has an atmosphere with wind, for dunes require wind to pile up the sand. Most dunes on Mars are black because of the weathering of the volcanic rock basalt.[85] [86] Black sand can be found on Earth on Hawaii and on some tropical South Pacific islands.[87] Sand is common on Mars due to the old age of the surface that has allowed rocks to erode into sand. Dunes on Mars have been observed to move many meters.[88] [89] In this process, sand moves up the windward side and then falls down the leeward side of the dune, thus caused the dune to go toward the leeward side (or slip face).[90] When images are enlarged, some dunes on Mars display ripples on their surfaces.[91]

  • Wide view of dunes in Moreux Crater

  • Close, color view of dunes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close, color view of dunes

  • Close, color view of a dune

Ring mold craters

Ring Mold Craters are a kind of Impact crater that looks like a ring mold used in baking. They are believed to be caused by an impact into ice. The ice is covered by a layer of debris. They are found in parts of Mars that have buried ice. Laboratory experiments confirm that impacts into ice result in a "ring mold shape." Impacts into ice, warm the ice, and cause it to flow into the ring mold shape.

Another, later idea, for their formation suggests that the impacting body goes through layers of different densities. Later, erosion could have shaped them. It was thought that ring-mold craters could only exist in areas with large amounts of ground ice. However, with more extensive analysis of larger areas, it was found the ring mold craters are sometimes formed where there is not as much ice underground.[92] [93]


  • Ring mold craters on floor of a crater

  • Ring mold craters of various sizes on floor of a crater

Ring-mold craters form when an impact goes through to an ice layer. The rebound forms the ring-mold shape, and then dust and debris settle on the top to insulate the ice. Ring-mold craters form when an impact goes through to an ice layer. The rebound forms the ring-mold shape, and then dust and debris settle on the top to insulate the ice.

  • In this other idea for ring mold crater formation, an impact crater and the area around it is covered with mantle layers. Next, erosion removes most of the mantle. In the crater, the central section was compressed more due to thick mantle. As a result, it became more resistant to erosion. Only the edges of the mantle were removed by erosion--a plateau results.

  • Close view of Ring-mold crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Ring-mold craters, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of Ring-mold craters and brain terrain

  • Close view of Ring-mold craters and brain terrain

  • Close view of Ring-mold craters and brain terrain Rectangle shows size of football field for scale.

  • Ring mold crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

Volcanoes under ice

There is evidence that volcanoes sometimes erupt under ice, as they do on Earth at times. [94] [95] What seems to happen is that much ice melts, the water escapes, and then the surface cracks and collapses.[96] These exhibit concentric fractures and large pieces of ground that seemed to have been pulled apart. Sites like this may have recently had held liquid water, hence they may be fruitful places to search for evidence of life.[97] [98]

  • Large group of concentric cracks Location is Ismenius Lacus quadrangle. Cracks were formed by a volcano under ice.[99]

  • Tilted layers formed when ground collapsed, as seen by HiRISE, under HiWish program

  • Tilted layers formed from ground collapse

  • Mesas breaking up into blocks

  • Collapse features from volcano erupting under ice

  • Close view of collapse features from volcano erupting under ice

  • Close view of collapse features from volcano erupting under ice

  • Close view of collapse features from volcano erupting under ice

</gallery>

  • Depression forming from a possible subsurface loss of material

Mesas formed by ground collapse

  • Group of mesas, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Oval box contains mesas that may have moved apart.

  • Mesas breaking up forming straight edges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Fractures forming blocks

In places large fractures break up surfaces. Sometimes straight edges are formed and large cubes are created by the fractures.

  • Wide view of mesas that are forming fractures

  • Enlarged view of a part of previous image The rectangle represents the size of a football field.

  • Close-up of blocks being formed

  • Close-up of blocks being formed The rectangle represents the size of a football field, so blocks are the size of buildings.

  • Close-up of blocks being formed Many long fractures are visible on the surface.

  • Wide view showing light-toned feature that is breaking into blocks

  • Close view showing blocks being formed Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image. Box represents the size of a football field.

  • Color view of rocks breaking apart

Exhumed craters

Some features on Mars seem to be in the process of being uncovered. So, the thought is that they formed, were covered over, and now are being exhumed as material is being taken away by erosion. These features are quite noticeable with craters. When a crater forms, it will destroy what's under it and leave a rim and ejecta. In the example below, only part of the crater is visible. If the crater came after the layered feature, the impact that formed the crater would have removed part of the layered structure.


  • Wide view of exhumed craters

  • Close view of exhumed crater This crater is and was under a set of dipping layers.

Mounds

  • Wide view of field of mounds near pedestal crater

  • Close, color view of mounds, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Row of mounds Arrows point to some of the mounds.

  • Lines of mounds

Landslide

  • Landslide, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of landslide

  • Landslides

  • Type of landslide called a slump along crater wall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Black strip is due to data not collected there.

Hollows

When ice leaves the ground on Mars, various formations are created. Hollows form when large amounts of ice leave the ground. The ice leaves and then the ground collapses. The ice leaves by sublimation--that is the ice changes directly to a gas--it does not melt.

  • Wide view of terrain with hollows. The hollows were created when ice left the ground. The black strip is due to a malfunction.

  • Close view of hollows

  • Close view of hollows. Narrow ridges were made when hollows kept expanding.

  • Close, color view of hollows. The HiView program was used in the rgb color scheme.

Other images from Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

Close view of honeycomb shapes and brain terrain, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 

     Close view of honeycomb shapes and brain terrain, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program


  • Field of pits

  • Possible dike

  • Pits and troughs Pits may have formed from water/ice leaving the ground.

  • Boulders

  • Possible mud volcanoes

  • Close view of cones

  • Close view of possible pingos Pingos contain a core of pure ice; they would be useful for a source of water by future colonists.

  • Possible pingos. Pingos should look like mounds. Some will have cracks that formed when the water inside expanded as it froze.

  • Ridge This ridge may be an esker. Eskers began as streams under glaciers.

Ridges 

                            Ridges

See also

External links

References

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  96. ↑ Smellie, J., B. Edwards. 2016. Glaciovolcanism on Earth and Mars. Cambridge University Press.
  97. ↑ Levy, J. 2017">Levy, J., et al. 2017. Candidate volcanic and impact-induced ice depressions on Mars. Icarus: 285, 185–194.
  98. ↑ University of Texas at Austin. "A funnel on Mars could be a place to look for life." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 10 November 2016. <https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/11/161110125408.htm>.
  99. ↑ Levy, J., et al. 2017. Candidate volcanic and impact-induced ice depressions on Mars. Icarus: 285, 185–194.
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