Difference between revisions of "Mare Acidalium quadrangle"

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ESP 052050 2200mudvolcanoes.jpg|Wide view of field of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
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Gobustan State Reserve 04.png|Close view of mud volcanoes on Earth Location is Gobustan Azerbaijan.
 
Gobustan State Reserve 04.png|Close view of mud volcanoes on Earth Location is Gobustan Azerbaijan.
 
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==Channels in Idaeus Fossae region==
 
==Channels in Idaeus Fossae region==

Revision as of 07:42, 19 March 2020

Mars topography (MOLA dataset) HiRes (1).jpg
MC-04 Mare Acidalium 30–65° N 0–60° W Quadrangles Atlas
  • USGS-Mars-MC-4-MareAcidaliumRegion-mola.png
  • PIA00164-MC-4-MareAcidaliumRegion-19980604.jpg

The face on Mars is found in the lower right corner or the Mare Acidalium quadrangle, between the craters Aranda and Bamberg in the Cydonia Labyrinthus region.

The Mare Acidalium quadrangle contains many interesting features, but is most famous for an eroded mesa that looked like a face when originally seen in Viking images in the 70’s. Outstanding views of polygonal ground, mud volcanoes, gullies, and channels are here. In this article, some of the best pictures from a number of spacecraft will show what the landscape looks like in this region. The origins and significance of all features will be explained as they are currently understood.

The Mare Acidalium quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The quadrangle is located in the northern hemisphere and covers 30° to 65° north latitude and 0° to 60° west longitude (300° to 360° east longitude). The Mare Acidalium quadrangle is also referred to as MC-4 (Mars Chart-4).[1] The southern and northern borders of the quadrangle are approximately 3,065 km and 1,500 km wide, respectively. The north to south distance is about 2,050 km (slightly less than the length of Greenland).[2] The quadrangle covers a little over 3% of Mars’ surface.

Many regions with classical names are located here. Most of the region called Acidalia Planitia is found in Acidalium quadrangle. Parts of Tempe Terra, Arabia Terra, and Chryse Planitia are also in this quadrangle. This area contains many bright spots on a dark background that may be mud volcanoes. Lomonosov Crater and Kunowsky Crater are easily seen. The famous "face" on Mars is located in the Cydonia Mensae area--southeastern part of quadrangle.

The quadrangle contains many interesting features, including gullies and possible shorelines of an ancient northern ocean. Some areas are densely layered. The boundary between the southern highlands and the northern lowlands lies in Mare Acidalium.[3] The Cydonia Region includes the Face on Mars (located near 40.8 degrees north and 9.6 degrees west). When Mars Global Surveyor examined it with high resolution, the face turned out to just be an eroded mesa.[4] Mare Acidalium contains the Kasei Valles system of canyons. This huge system is 300 miles wide in some places—Earth's Grand Canyon is only 18 miles wide.[5]

Origin of name

Mare Acidalium (Acidalian Sea) is the name of a classical albedo features on Mars located at 45° N and 330° E on Mars. The feature was named for a well or fountain in Boeotia, Greece. According to classical tradition, it is a location where Venus and the Graces bathed.[6] The name was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1958.[7]


Gullies

The HiRISE image below of Acidalia Colles shows gullies in the northern hemisphere. Gullies occur on steep slopes, especially craters. Gullies are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters, and they lie on top of sand dunes which are themselves young. Usually, each gully has an alcove, channel, and apron. Many researchers believed that the processes carving the gullies involve liquid water. However, with more observations and research this idea has changed. As soon as gullies were discovered, researchers began to image many gullies over and over, looking for possible changes. By 2006, some changes were found.[8] Later, with further analysis it was determined that the changes could have occurred with dry granular flows rather than being driven by flowing water.[9] [10] [11] With continued observations many more changes were found in Gasa Crater and others.[12] With more repeated observations, more and more changes were found; since the changes occur in the winter and spring, experts are tending to believe that gullies were formed from dry ice. Before-and-after images demonstrated the timing of this activity coincided with seasonal carbon-dioxide frost changes, and temperatures that would not have allowed for liquid water. The conditions during gully formation are just about right to allow chunks of dry ice to slide down slopes. When dry ice frost changes to a gas, it may lubricate dry material to flow especially on steep slopes.[13] [14][15] In some years frost build up may be-as thick as 1 meter.

  • Acidalia Colles Gullies and other features, as seen by HiRISE The scale bar is 1,000 meters long.

  • Context for next image of Bamberg crater. Box shows where the next image came from. This is a CTX image from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.

  • Gullies and massive flow of material, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. Gullies are enlarged in next two images. Location is Bamberg crater.

  • Close up view of some gullies, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program

  • Close up view of another gully in same HiRISE picture. Picture taken under HiWish program.

  • Close-up of gullies in a crater from previous image. Image taken by HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Gullies on wall of crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Location is the Mare Acidalium quadrangle.

  • Close-up of gully channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. This image shows many streamlined forms and some benches along a channel. These features suggest formation by running water. Benches are usually formed when the water level goes down a bit and stays at that level for a time. Picture was taken with HiRISE under HiWish program. Location is the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Polygonal patterned ground

Polygonal, patterned ground is quite common in some regions of Mars.[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] It is commonly believed that the shapes we see here are related to ground frozen with water ice.

  • Close-up of gully alcove showing "gullygons" (polygonal patterned ground near gullies), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

  • Close-up of gully alcove showing "gullygons" (polygonal patterned ground near gullies), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note this is an enlargement of a previous image.

Craters

Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits.[23] Sometimes craters display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

  • Arandas Crater, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image for a better view of North and South Walls, as well as central hills. Scale bar is 1000 meters long.

  • Exhumed Crater in Mare Acidalium, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor.

  • Group of craters that may have struck the surface at the same time after an asteroid broke up. If the craters were formed at different times, they would have wiped away parts of the others. Picture was taken by HiRISE, under HiWish program. Image located in Terra Cimmeria.

  • Crater wall covered with a smooth mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Crater with pits on floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Mud volcanoes

Large areas of Mare Acidalium display bright spots on a dark background. It has been suggested that the spots are mud volcanoes.[24] [25][26] More than 18,000 of these features, which have an average diameter of about 800 meters, have been mapped.[27] As more observations poured in over the years, more evidence supported the notion that these abundant bright marks are mud volcanoes. Mare Acidalium would have received large quantities of mud and fluids form outflow channels, so much mud may have accumulated there. The bright mounds have been found to contain crystalline ferric oxides. Mud volcanism here may be highly significant because long lived conduits for upwelling groundwater could have been produced. These could have been habitats for micro organisms.[28] Mud volcanoes could have brought up samples from deep zones that could therefore be sampled by robots.[29] The authors of an article in Icarus compare these Martian features to mud volcanoes found on the Earth. Their study using HiRISE images and CRISM data support the idea that these features are indeed mud volcanoes. Nanophase ferric minerals and hydrated minerals found with Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) show that water was involved with the formation of these possible Martian mud volcanoes.[30] Scientists are excited that Mars may have mud volcanoes because these small volcanoes may have brought up samples of dirt that were not affected by the high radiation on the Martian surface. We may find evidence of past life in the volcanoes.

  • Craters with white centers in Mare Acidalium. Sand dunes are visible in low areas in image. Some of the features may be mud volcanoes. Picture taken by Mars Global Surveyor under the MOC Public Targeting Program.

  • Mud volcanoes near the edge of the ejecta of a nearby crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.

  • Large field of cones that may be mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close-up of possible mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image.

  • Possible mud volcano, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Line of possible mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Wide view of field of mud volcanoes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of mud volcanoes on Earth Location is Gobustan Azerbaijan.

Channels in Idaeus Fossae region

There is a 300 km long river system in Idaeus Fossae. It is carved into the highlands of Idaeus Fossae, and it originated from the melting of ice in the ground after asteroid impacts. There is evidence that it was formed relatively recently. Dating has determined that the water activity came after most of the water activity ended at the boundary between the Noachian and Hesperian periods. Lakes and fan-shaped deposits were formed by running water in this system as it drained eastward into Liberta Crater and formed a delta deposit. Part of the drainage path is the Moa Valley.[31] [32]

  • Stream meander and cutoff, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program. This is part of a major drainage system in the Idaeus Fossae region.

  • Hanging valley, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This may have been a waterfall at one time.

  • Hanging valley that once may have been a waterfall, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Channels

There is much evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars.[33] [34] Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter.[35] [36] [37] [38] Indeed, a study published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had.[39][40]

  • Sklodowska (Martian crater), as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Small channels are visible along the eroded, southern rim.

  • Channels in Sklodowska Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image.

  • Channels in Sklodowska Crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.

  • Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channels, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channel network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Ocean

Many researchers have suggested that Mars once had a great ocean in the north.[41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] Much evidence for this ocean has been gathered over several decades. New evidence was published in May 2016. A large team of scientists described how some of the surface in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle was altered by two tsunamis. The tsunamis were caused by asteroids striking the ocean. Both were thought to have been strong enough to create 30 km diameter craters. The first tsunami picked up and carried boulders the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. So, some large waves would have gone over a 36 story building.[48] Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that a great northern ocean may have existed for millions of years. One argument against an ocean has been the lack of shoreline features. These features may have been washed away by these tsunami events. The parts of Mars studied in this research are Chryse Planitia and northwestern Arabia Terra. These tsunamis affected some surfaces in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle and in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle.[49] [50] [51] [52]

Pingos

Pingos are believed to be present on Mars. They are mounds that contain cracks. These particular fractures were evidently produced by something emerging from below the brittle surface of Mars. Ice lenses, resulting from the accumulation of ice beneath the surface, possibly created these mounds with fractures. Ice is less dense than rock, so the buried ice rose and pushed upwards on the surface and generated these cracks. An analogous process creates similar sized mounds in arctic tundra on Earth that are known as pingos, an Inuit word.[53] They contain pure water ice, so they would be a great source of water for future colonists on Mars.

  • Arrows point to possible pingos, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Pingos contain a core of pure ice.

Fractured ground

  • Fractures, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program These fractures are believed to eventually turn into canyons because ice in the ground will disappear into the thin Martian atmosphere and the remaining dust will be blown away.

  • Wide view of fractured ground, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Cracks form on the Martian surface, and then they turn into large fractures.

  • Close view of fractures from the previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Cracks on crater floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of cracks on crater floor, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Group of cracks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of cracks of various sizes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Ice disappears along crack surfaces and makes crack larger. Note that small craters do not have very big rims; they may be just pits.

  • Close view of cracks of various sizes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Ice disappears along crack surfaces and makes crack larger.

  • Cracks around crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Layers

Rock can be formed into layers in a variety of ways. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers[54] Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater. Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through. When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents.

  • Layers in mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of layers in mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of layers in a trough, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Layered mesa, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Other landscape features in Mare Acidalium quadrangle

  • Cliff in Kasei Valles system, as seen by HiRISE.

  • Enlargement of cliff in Kasei Valles system in previous image showing boulders and their tracks, as seen by HiRISE. Click on image to see a boulder only 2.2 yards across (smaller than a bedroom).

  • CTX image showing the context for the next image of a fault.

  • Close-up of a possible fault in Mare Acidalium, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program. A circle is drawn around crater to show that it may be off round because of movement of the fault. Many other faults are in the region.

  • Fan with channels on its surface, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Sample of oval pits in this location of unknown origin, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

See also

References

  1. ↑ Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. Mars. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.
  2. ↑ Distances calculated using NASA World Wind measuring tool. http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/.
  3. ↑ http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_010354_2165
  4. ↑ http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/msss/camera/images/moc_5_24_01/face/index.html
  5. ↑ http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_001640_2125
  6. ↑ Blunck, J. 1982. Mars and its Satellites. Exposition Press. Smithtown, N.Y.
  7. ↑ USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Mars. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/.
  8. ↑ Malin, M., K. Edgett, L. Posiolova, S. McColley, E. Dobrea. 2006. Present-day impact cratering rate and contemporary gully activity on Mars. Science 314, 1573_1577.
  9. ↑ Kolb, et al. 2010. Investigating gully flow emplacement mechanisms using apex slopes. Icarus 2008, 132-142.
  10. ↑ McEwen, A. et al. 2007. A closer look at water-related geological activity on Mars. Science 317, 1706-1708.
  11. ↑ Pelletier, J., et al. 2008. Recent bright gully deposits on Mars wet or dry flow? Geology 36, 211-214.
  12. ↑ NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "NASA orbiter finds new gully channel on Mars." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 22 March 2014. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140322094409.htm
  13. ↑ http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-226
  14. ↑ http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/ESP_032078_1420
  15. ↑ http://www.space.com/26534-mars-gullies-dry-ice.html
  16. ↑ http://www.diss.fu-berlin.de/diss/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDISS_derivate_000000003198/16_ColdClimateLandforms-13-utopia.pdf?hosts=
  17. ↑ Kostama, V.-P., M. Kreslavsky, Head, J. 2006. Recent high-latitude icy mantle in the northern plains of Mars: Characteristics and ages of emplacement. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33 (L11201). doi:10.1029/2006GL025946.
  18. ↑ Malin, M., Edgett, K. 2001. Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera: Interplanetary cruise through primary mission. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (E10), 23429–23540.
  19. ↑ Milliken, R., et al. 2003. Viscous flow features on the surface of Mars: Observations from high-resolution Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) images. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (E6). doi:10.1029/2002JE002005.
  20. ↑ Mangold | first1 = N | year = 2005 | title = High latitude patterned grounds on Mars: Classification, distribution and climatic control | url = | journal = Icarus | volume = 174 | issue = | pages = 336–359 | doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.07.030 |
  21. ↑ Kreslavsky, M., Head, J. 2000. Kilometer-scale roughness on Mars: Results from MOLA data analysis. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (E11), 26695–26712.
  22. ↑ Seibert | first1 = N. | last2 = Kargel | first2 = J. | year = 2001 | title = Small-scale martian polygonal terrain: Implications for liquid surface water | url = | journal = Geophys. Res. Lett. | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 899–902 | doi = 10.1029/2000gl012093 |
  23. ↑ Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ%7Caccessdate=7 March 2011|year=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7
  24. ↑ Farrand | first1 = W. | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Pitted cones and domes on Mars: observations in Acidalia Planitia and Cydonia Mensae using MOC, THEMIS, and TES data | url = | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 110 | issue = | page = 14 | doi = 10.1029/2004JE002297
  25. ↑ Tanaka, K. et al. 2003 Resurfacing history of the northern plains of Mars based on geologic mapping of Mars Global Surveyor data. J. Geophys. Res. 108 (E4), doi:10.1029/2002JE001908.
  26. ↑ Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.) 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM
  27. ↑ Oehler, D. and C. Allen. 2010. Evidence for pervasive mud volcanism in Acidalia Planitia, Mars. Icarus: 208. 636-657.
  28. ↑ Komatsu, G., et al. 2014. ASTROBIOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF MUD VOLCANISM ON MARS. 45th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2014). 1085.pdf
  29. ↑ Oehler | first1 = D | last2 = Allen | first2 = C. | year = 2011 | title = Evidence for pervasive mud volcanism in Acidalia Planitia, Mars | url = | journal = Icarus | volume = 208 | issue = | pages = 636–657 | doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2010.03.031 }}
  30. ↑ Komatsu, G., et al. 2016. Small edifice features in Chryse Planitia, Mars: Assessment of a mud volcano hypothesis. Icarus: 268, 56-75.
  31. ↑ Salese, F., G. Di Achille, F., et al. 2016. Hydrological and sedimentary analyses of well-preserved paleo fluvial-paleolacustrine systems at Moa Valles, Mars. J. Geophys. Res. Planets. 121, 194–232, doi:10.1002/2015JE004891.
  32. ↑ Salese, F., G. Di Achille, G. Ori. 2015. SEDIMENTOLOGY OF A RIVER SYSTEM WITH A SERIES OF DAM-BREACH PALEOLAKES AT IDAEUS FOSSAE, MARS. 46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2296.pdf
  33. ↑ Baker | first1 = V. | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Fluvial geomorphology on Earth-like planetary surfaces: a review | journal = Geomorphology | volume = 245 | issue = | pages = 149–182 |
  34. ↑ Carr, M. 1996. in Water on Mars. Oxford Univ. Press.
  35. ↑ Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
  36. ↑ Baker | first1 = V. | last2 = Strom | first2 = R. | last3 = Gulick | first3 = V. | last4 = Kargel | first4 = J. | last5 = Komatsu | first5 = G. | last6 = Kale | first6 = V. | year = 1991 | title = Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 352 | issue = | pages = 589–594 | doi = 10.1038/352589a0 |
  37. ↑ {{cite journal | last1 = Carr | first1 = M | year = 1979 | title = Formation of Martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers | url = | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 84 | issue = | pages = 2995–300 | doi = 10.1029/jb084ib06p02995 |
  38. ↑ Komar | first1 = P | year = 1979 | title = Comparisons of the hydraulics of water flows in Martian outflow channels with flows of similar scale on Earth | url = | journal = Icarus | volume = 37 | issue = | pages = 156–181 | doi = 10.1016/0019-1035(79)90123-4 |
  39. ↑ http://spaceref.com/mars/how-much-water-was-needed-to-carve-valleys-on-mars.html
  40. ↑ Luo, W., et al. 2017. New Martian valley network volume estimate consistent with ancient ocean and warm and wet climate. Nature Communications 8. Article number: 15766 (2017). doi:10.1038/ncomms15766
  41. ↑ Parker | first1 = T. J. | last2 = Gorsline | first2 = D. S. | last3 = Saunders | first3 = R. S. | last4 = Pieri | first4 = D. C. | last5 = Schneeberger | first5 = D. M. | year = 1993 | title = Coastal geomorphology of the Martian northern plains | url = | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 98 | issue = E6| pages = 11061–11078 | doi=10.1029/93je00618 |
  42. ↑ Fairén | first1 = A. G. |display-authors=etal | year = 2003 | title = Episodic flood inundations of the northern plains of Mars | url = http://eprints.ucm.es/10431/1/9-Marte_3.pdf%7C journal = Icarus | volume = 165 | issue = 1| pages = 53–67 |
  43. ↑ Head | first1 = J. W. |display-authors=etal | year = 1999 | title = Possible ancient oceans on Mars: Evidence from Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter data | url = | journal = Science | volume = 286 | issue = 5447| pages = 2134–2137 | doi=10.1126/science.286.5447.2134| pmid = 10591640 |
  44. ↑ Parker, T. J., Saunders, R. S. & Schneeberger, D. M. Transitional morphology in west Deuteronilus Mensae, Mars: Implications for modification of the lowland/upland boundary" Icarus 1989; 82, 111–145
  45. ↑ Carr | first1 = M. H. | last2 = Head | first2 = J. W. | year = 2003 | title = Oceans on Mars: An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate | url = | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 108 | issue = E5| page = 5042 |
  46. ↑ Kreslavsky | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Head | first2 = J. W. | year = 2002| title = Fate of outflow channel effluent in the northern lowlands of Mars: The Vastitas Borealis Formation as a sublimation residue from frozen ponded bodies of water | url = | journal = J. Geophys. Res. | volume = 107 | issue = E12| page = 5121 |
  47. ↑ Clifford, S. M. & Parker, T. J. The evolution of the martian hydrosphere: Implications for the fate of a primordial ocean and the current state of the northern plains" Icarus 2001; 154, 40–79
  48. ↑ https://www.convertunits.com/from/metre/to/story
  49. ↑ Ancient Tsunami Evidence on Mars Reveals Life Potential |date=May 20, 2016 |url=http://astrobiology.com/2016/05/ancient-tsunami-evidence-on-mars-reveals-life-potential.html
  50. ↑ Rodriguez | first1 = J. |display-authors=etal | year = 2016 | title = Tsunami waves extensively resurfaced the shorelines of an early Martian ocean | url = | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | issue = | page = 25106 | doi=10.1038/srep25106| pmid = 27196957 | pmc = 4872529 |
  51. ↑ | doi=10.1038/srep25106| pmid=27196957| pmc=4872529| title=Tsunami waves extensively resurfaced the shorelines of an early Martian ocean| journal=Scientific Reports| volume=6| pages=25106| year=2016| last1=Rodriguez| first1=J. Alexis P.| last2=Fairén| first2=Alberto G.| last3=Tanaka| first3=Kenneth L.| last4=Zarroca| first4=Mario| last5=Linares| first5=Rogelio| last6=Platz| first6=Thomas| last7=Komatsu| first7=Goro| last8=Miyamoto| first8=Hideaki| last9=Kargel| first9=Jeffrey S.| last10=Yan| first10=Jianguo| last11=Gulick| first11=Virginia| last12=Higuchi| first12=Kana| last13=Baker| first13=Victor R.| last14=Glines| first14=Natalie
  52. ↑ Cornell University. "Ancient tsunami evidence on Mars reveals life potential." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 19 May 2016. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160519101756.htm.
  53. ↑ http://www.uahirise.org/ESP_046359_1250
  54. ↑ http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?PSP_008437_1750
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