What Mars Actually Looks Like!

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Article written by Jim Secosky. Jim is a retired science teacher who has used the Hubble Space Telescope, the Mars Global Surveyor, and HiRISE.


Almost all of the sites that we have landed on Mars with spacecraft have been to the most drab and boring places on the planet. This was done to ensure a safe landing. This article will display many of the more exciting landscapes using HiRISE images. HiRISE images can show detail down to the size of a small kitchen table. With HiRISE we frequently even see spacecraft that have landed on the surface. Many of the scenes shown here are about one would see at the height of a helicopter. Most of the HiRISE images here were obtained through the HiWish program, a program where anyone could suggest places to be imaged with HiRISE. To obtain the images, I studied wide angle CTX images to find sites that could contain interesting features. I was lucky that many of my suggestions were photographed, and I was able to gather them together for this article.

Viking 1

Rocks and dunes, as seen from Viking 1 Holes were dug by the digging tool. Part of the meteorology boom is visible.

Viking 1 was the first successful spacecraft to land on Mars. It landed on July 20, 1976 at 22.27 N and 47.95 W (312.05 E). July 20th was also the date when we first landed on the moon in 1969.

Viking 2

View from Viking 2

Viking 2 landed on September 3, 1976 at 47.64 N and 275.71 W (84.29 E).

Mars Pathfinder

Wide view from Mars pathfinder, showing Sojourner Rover

The Mars Pathfinder landed on July 4, 1997 at 19 degrees 7’ 48” in Ares Vallis.

Spirit Rover

The Spirit Rover landed on January 4, 2004 at 14.5684 S and 175.472636 E (184.527364 W).

  • Bonneville crater from Spirit Rover Columbia Hills are in the right in the distance. Spirit eventually drove to the Columbia Hills.

  • Wide view with Husband Hill in the distance to which Spirit eventually drove to. Solar panels are visible.

  • Wide view from Spirit Rover Solar panels are visible.

Opportunity Rover

The Opportunity Rover landed on January 25, 2004 at 1.9462 S and 354.4734 E (5.5268 W).

  • Wide view from Opportunity showing heat shield to the left and circular impact crater on the right

  • Wide view of Perserverance Valley taken with Opportunity Rover High points visible on the rim of Endeavour Crater include "Winnemucca" on the left and "Cape Tribulation" on the right. Winnemucca is part of the "Cape Byron" portion of the crater rim. The horizon at far right extends across the floor of Endeavour Crater, which is about 14 miles (22 kilometers) in diameter.

  • Wide view from top of the "Cape Tribulation" segment of the rim of Endeavour Crater.

Phoenix

Wide view from Phoenix lander Solar panels are visible.

Phoenix landed in the far North of Mars on May 25, 2008 at 68.22 N and 125.7 W (234.3 E) in Vastitas Borealis.

Curiosity Rover

Early view from Curiosity Mount Sharp is in the distance. The shadow of Rover is visible. Mount Sharp at a height of about 3.4 miles is taller than Mt. Whitney in California.

The Curiosity Rover landed on August 6, 2012 at Gale Crater in Aeolis Palus at 4.5895 S and 137.4417 E (222.5583 W). By this time scientists were able to be more precise with their landings, so Curiosity has been able to get views of Mars that are pretty exciting.


  • Slip Face on Downwind Side of 'Namib' Sand Dune on Mars, as seen by Curiosity Dune stands about 13 feet (4 meters) high. Picture taken with Navcam.

  • This evenly layered rock photographed by the Mast Camera (Mastcam) on NASA's Curiosity Mars Rover shows a pattern typical of a lake-floor sedimentary deposit not far from where flowing water entered a lake.

  • View from the "Kimberley" formation on Mars taken by NASA's Curiosity rover.

  • View from Mastcam on Curiosity showing sloping buttes and layered outcrops on lower Mount Sharp Location is within the "Murray Buttes" region on lower Mount Sharp.

  • 360-degree panorama of a location called "Teal Ridge"

  • Close view of layers of ancient sediment on a boulder-sized rock called "Strathdon," as seen by the Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) camera on the end of the robotic arm on NASA's Curiosity rover.

What follows are a few pictures of the many different scenes that we have studied with powerful cameras on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that has been going around Mars for over 10 years.

Dunes

The Martian surface displays many beautiful dark dunes. For many years, scientists thought dark dunes were composed of the grains of sand from the volcanic rock basalt; this was confirmed by rovers on the surface.[1] The dunes are covered by a seasonal carbon dioxide frost that forms in early autumn and remains until late spring.

Colorful dunes in the Mare Tyrrhenum quadrangle[3] 

                             Colorful dunes in the Mare Tyrrhenum quadrangle[4]

  • Dunes processed in the rgb color system

  • Wide view of dune field in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Defrosting dunes in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Color view of dunes defrosting Ice is in the toughs of the polygons.

  • Wide view of dune field

  • Close view of dunes

  • Close view of dunes

Layers

Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.[5] Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.

Layers and fault in Firsoff Crater

Layers and fault in Firsoff Crater in Oxia Palus quadrangle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Layers in Crommelin Crater

  • Layers in Danielson Crater in Oxia Palus quadrangle

  • Color image of layers on the floor of Danielson Crater taken under the HiWish program

Layers on the floor of Danielson Crater taken under the HiWish program Box shows size of a football field.

Glaciers

There are large areas on Mars that contain what is thought to be ice moving under a cover of debris. A few meters of debris can preserve ice for long periods of time.[6]

Several types of landforms have been identified as probably dirt and rock debris covering huge deposits of ice.[7] [8] [9] [10] Concentric crater fill (CCF) contains dozens to hundreds of concentric ridges that are caused by the movements of sometimes hundreds of meter thick accumulations of ice in craters.[11] [12] Lineated valley fill (LVF)are lines of ridges in valleys.[13] [14] [15] These lines may have developed as other glaciers moved down valleys. Some of these glaciers seem to come from material sitting around mesas and buttes.[16] Lobate debris aprons (LDA) is the name given to these glaciers. All of these features that are believed to contain large amounts of ice are found in the mid-latitudes in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres.[17] [18] [19]

  • Glacier leaving a valley in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Concentric crater fill The concentric lines are formed from ice moving away from the crater walls. This crater is mostly full of ice.

  • Wide view of concentric crater fill in crater in Casius quadrangle

Mesa with Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA) Orbiting radars have detected ice in LDA’s under a thin cover of debris.
Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA) around a mound
Labeled view of Lineated Valley Flow and glacier


  • Lineated Valley Flow in valley

  • Lineated Valley Flow, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program

Gullies

Martian gullies are networks of narrow channels and their associated downslope deposits, found on steep slopes. A high concentration occurs near 40 degrees north and south of the equator. Usually, each gully has an alcove at its head, a fan-shaped apron at its base, and a channel linking the two.[20] They are believed to be relatively young because they have few, if any craters. They were believed to be caused by recent running water, but with more observations it was shown that pieces of dry ice moving down slopes could cause them.

  • Gullies with alcove, channel, and apron labeled

  • Gullies in Argyre quadrangle Curved channels were thought to need running water to form.

  • Color view of Gullies, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Gullies in Phaethontis quadrangle Ridges at the end of the gullies may be the remains of old glaciers.[21]

Channels

There are thousands of channels that were probably caused by running water in the past on Mars. Some are large; some are tiny.[22] [23] [24] [25] [26]

  • Small branched channel

  • Channel in the Sinus Sabaeus quadrangle

  • Streamlined forms in wide channel These were shaped by running water.

  • An oxbow means that water flowed long enough to make a meander before the stream made a shortcut across the meanders.

Troughs

The great weight of several huge volcanoes on Mars has stretched the crust and made it break into cracks called, “troughs” or “fossae.” Some of them show evidence that lava and/or water have come out of them in the past. They can be very long.[27] [28] [29]

  • Troughs in the Elysium Planitia

  • Troughs in Amenthes quadrangle

  • Pits and troughs Troughs seem to start with lines of pits. Layers and dark slope streaks are also visible.

  • Troughs in the Cebrenia quadrangle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Craters

Most of the surface of Mars is over a billion years old. Because Mars has not had active plate tectonics for a very long time (if it ever had active plate tectonics), impact craters stay for a long time. So, impact craters are a major surface feature. There is a rich variety of craters on the planet.[30] [31]

Young crater with bright ejecta in the Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program The impact reached down to a layer that is light-toned. That light-toned material was then deposited on a dark surface.


Young crater with bright ejecta in the Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program The impact reached down to a layer that is light-toned. That light-toned material was then deposited on a dark surface.


  • This is a fairly young crater as it still shows ejecta, layers, and a rim.

  • Group of secondary craters These are formed from material that is blasted way up in the air from the impact.

  • Crater containing gullies and depressions The curved depressions are formed when the ground loses ice. Gullies may be due to water or dry ice moving down the walls.

  • Crater with pits and holes on floor The shapes on the floor occurred when ice left the ground.

  • Close view of pits on floor of crater A box shows the size of a football field. Note: This is an enlargement of the previous image of a crater.

  • Layered mound in crater Layers represent material that once covered a wide area. Mound was shaped by winds.[32]

  • Layered feature in crater in Casius quadrangle These layered features are quite common in some regions of Mars.

  • Wide view of ring-mold crater on the floor of a larger crater

  • Close view of ring-mold craters (indicated with arrows) Surface between the ring-mold craters is covered with brain terrain.

  • New, small crater We have detected many new craters on Mars that have impacted the planet since good cameras have orbited the planet.

  • Exposed ice in small craters The fresh ice had almost disappeared when the second picture was taken. This set of images is good evidence that ice lies under a thin layer of debris.

  • Pedestal crater The surface was protected from erosion by the ejecta. In the past all the surrounding ground was at the level of the pedestal. Most of the loss is thought to be from the loss of ice.

  • Pedestal crater with a butterfly shape. this may have formed from a low angle impact.

  • Crater with light streak Streaks associated with craters are quite common on Mars because there is a great deal of fine dust that can be blown around.

Scalloped Terrain

Scalloped topography is common in the mid-latitudes of Mars, between 45° and 60° north and south. It is especially prominent in the region of Utopia Planitia.[33] [34] Such topography consists of shallow, rimless depressions with scalloped edges, commonly referred to as "scalloped depressions" or simply "scallops". Scalloped depressions can be isolated or clustered and sometimes seem to coalesce. The usual scalloped depression displays a gentle equator-facing slope and a steeper pole-facing scarp.[35] Scalloped topography may be of great importance for future colonization of Mars because it may point to deposits of pure ice.[36] [37]

Scalloped terrain in Casius quadrangle
Scalloped terrain in Utopia Planitia in the Casius quadrangle
Scalloped terrain in Utopia Planitia

Brain Terrain

Brain terrain is a region of maze-like ridges 3–5 meters high. A person could wander between these ridges like a rat in a maze. Some ridges may consist of an ice core, so they may be sources of water for future colonists.[38]

  • Labeled picture of open and closed brain terrain in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Wide view of brain terrain in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

  • Brain terrain forming in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

Ribbed terrain

Ribbed terrain forms as ice leaves the ground along cracks in a process called " sublimation." Much of the ground is ice so that when the ice disappears the ground collapses.[39]

Wide view of ribbed terrain in Ismenius Lacus quadrangle

Ribbed terrain
Ribbed terrain The box is the size of a football field

Linear Ridge Networks

Close view of ridge network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program 

                                     Close view of ridge network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

This terrain appears over much of the planet. However, there is a heavy concentration of these features, also called irregular polygonal ridge networks, in the Nili Fossae region.[40] These networks consist of groups of narrow ridges that often meet at close to right angles. We are not sure of how it originated. It may have been caused by fluids moving into cracks that were created by impacts. The fluids then became hard and erosion resistant.[41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47]

  • Wide view of linear ridge network Location is Casius quadrangle.

  • Close view of linear ridge network Location is Casius quadrangle.

  • Ridge network in Amazonis quadrangle

  • Ridge network in Mare Tyrrhenum quadrangle

  • Close view of ridge network

Yardangs

Yardangs form from fine-grained material. They are shaped by the wind and show the direction of the prevailing winds. Much of this fine-grained material probably has its origin in the many large volcanoes on the planet. Yardangs are especially common in what's called the "Medusae Fossae Formation." This formation is found in the Amazonis quadrangle and near the equator.[48] Because they exhibit very few impact craters they are believed to be relatively young.[49]

  • Yardangs

  • Yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

  • Wide view of yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

  • Close, color view of yardangs in Amazonis quadrangle

Dust Devil Tracks

Dust devil tracks can be very beautiful. They are made by giant dust devils removing bright colored dust from the Martian surface; consequently exposing a dark layer.[50] Dust devils on Mars have been photographed both from the ground and from orbit. They have even blown dust off the solar panels of two Rovers on Mars, thereby greatly extending their useful lifetime.[51] The pattern of the tracks has been shown to change every few months.[52]

Dust devils photographed by Mars Rover Spirit

  • Dust Devil Tracks

  • Dust devil tracks in Hellas quadrangle Dark material is visible in the troughs of polygons.

Dark Slope Streaks

Dark slope streaks are avalanche-like features common on dust-covered slopes, especially in the equatorial regions.[53] These streaks have never been observed on the Earth.[54] They form in relatively steep terrain, such as along cliffs and crater walls.[55] The darkest streaks are only about 10% darker than their surroundings. The streaks seem much darker because of contrast enhancement in the image processing.[56]

  • Dark slope streaks in trough Layers are also visible in the image.

  • Close view of dark slope streaks

  • New dark slope streak that was triggered by an impact

Lava

Large areas of Mars are covered with lava flows.[57] [58] [59] [60] Lava flows can also move around an create what appear to be layers, especially if it fluid like water. Basalt flows can often be that way.[61]

  • Lava flows in Phoenicis Lacus quadrangle

  • Rafts of lava in Amazonis quadrangle

  • ”Rootless cones” caused by lava flowing over ice-rich ground in Elysium quadrangle

Mud Volcanoes

Mud volcanoes are very common in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. Because they bring up mud from underground, they may hold sources of evidence of life.[62] Being underground the mud was protected from radiation on the surface. Methane has been detected on Mars; methane may be produced by certain bacteria. Some scientists speculate that methane may come from mud volcanoes.[63]

Mud volcanoes in Mare Acidalium quadrangle
Close view of mud volcano, as seen by HiRISE
Mud volcanoes

Rootless cones

Rootless Cones are believed to be caused by lava flowing over ice or ground containing ice. Heat from the lava causes the ice to quickly change to steam which blows out a ring or cone. Some of the forms do not have the shape of rings or cones because maybe the lava moved too quickly; thereby not allowing a complete cone shape to form.

Rootless cones formed when lava flowed over ice or ice-rich ground. The sharp bend in the line of cones may have been caused by the lava changing direction.
Close view of rootless cones, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program
Close view of rootless cones showing wakes caused by lava moving
Wide view of field of rootless cones in Elysium quadrangle

Honeycomb Terrain

Honeycomb terrain is found on parts of the floor of Hellas Planitia. It may be due to rising bodies of ice followed by erosion.[64] [65] [66]

Honeycomb terrain in Hellas quadrangle

Fractured Surface and Blocks

In many places on Mars bedrock breaks up into large blocks. Sometimes the blocks form what look like perfect cubes. Although one may think these shapes had to be made by intelligent aliens, this is a natural process. The salt you put on your food also breaks up into cubes. Check your salt out with a magnifying glass.

Rock breaking up into cube-shaped blocks

Fractured Ground

Some places on Mars break up with large fractures that create a terrain with mesas and valleys. Some of these can be quite pretty.

  • Wide view of fractured ground

  • Close view of fractured ground

Dipping layers

Groups of layers that are tilted are common in some areas of Mars. They represent material that once covered a wide area.[67] [68] The layers may be related to changes in the climate in the past. They may have been shaped by the wind.

  • Wide view of layered features in Hellas quadrangle

  • Close view of layered features in Hellas quadrangle Each layer may represent a change in the climate.

  • Tilted layers in Ismenius Lacus These sets of layers can often be seen leaning against slopes.

Boulders

Much of the surface of Mars is covered with hard, basalt volcanic rock. When the rock breaks down it often forms large boulders the size of houses.

  • Fractures with boulders in low areas in Elysium quadrangle Box shows size of football field.

  • Color view of boulders

  • Close view of dunes showing boulders with arrows If you click on image to enlarge, you can see the tracks left by the boulders as they traveled down the dune.

Hollows

Some places on Mars have surfaces that are covered with hollows. Sometimes they form large holes, sometimes curved canyons. They can be pretty and would be fun to explore on foot in the future. This terrain may have developed from what has been called ribbed terrain. Either way, these scenes were caused as ice left the ground.

  • Wide view of hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground

  • Close color view of hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground

  • Hollows in ground, probably from ice leaving the ground Location is Hellas Montes Region.

Mesas

Many, large areas of Mars have eroded such that there are many mesas. Some show layers. Mesas show how the kind of material that covered a wide area. Mesas are what are left after the ground is mostly eroded.

  • Mesa with box showing size of football field

  • Layered mesa with box showing size of football field

  • Mesa that is 14 km or 8.7 miles around the outside

Landslides

Mars shows various mass movements like landslides. There are many steep slopes for material to move down, especially in craters and canyons.

  • Landslide

  • Landslide

  • Landslide

Latitude Dependent Mantle

Latitude Dependent Mantle is very common in certain latitudes.[69] It often appears as a smooth covering. A certain percentage of it consists of ice. It may be a major source of water for future colonists because it has a widespread distribution. Sometimes mantle displays layers because it was deposited at different times.

  • Comparison of terrain with and without a covering of mantle

  • Mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view that displays the thickness of the mantle, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Mantle layers with layers


Exhumed craters

Exhumed craters seem to be in the process of being uncovered.[70] The surface of Mars is very old. Places have been covered, uncovered, and covered again by sediments. The pictures below show a crater that is being exposed by erosion. When a crater forms, it will destroy what's under it. In the example below, only part of the crater is visible. Had the crater been created after the layered feature, it would have removed part of the feature and we would see the entire crater.

  • Wide view of exhumed craters, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of exhumed crater This crater is and was under a set of dipping layers.

Swiss Cheese Terrain

Parts of Mare Australe show pits that make the surface look like Swiss cheese.[71] [72] [73] [74] These pits are in a 1-10 meter thick layer of dry ice that lies on a much larger water ice cap. These circular pits have steep walls that work to focus sunlight, thereby increasing erosion. For a pit to develop, a steep wall of about 10 cm and a length of over 5 meters in necessary.[75]

Swiss Cheese Terrain near South Pole, as seen by HiRISE
Changes in Swiss Cheese Terrain from August 2009 to January 2019
Swiss Cheese Terrain August 2009
Swiss Cheese Terrain January 2019

Ice Cap Layers

The northern ice cap of Mars displays many layers of ice that accumulated when the climate changed. These are visible when there is a canyon in the ice. The climate of Mars changes greatly due to the large changes in the tilt of Mars. Mars does not have a large moon to stabilize its' tilt.

  • Layers exposed in ice cap in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Layers exposed in ice cap in Mare Boreum quadrangle

  • Layers in northern ice cap Some of the layers are at different angles because erosion took away some layers to the right.

  • Layers in northern ice cap This photo was named picture of the day for January 21, 2019.

Spiders

The official name for spiders is "araneiforms."As the temperature goes up in the spring, pressurized carbon dioxide gas and dark dust are released from under slabs of ice.[76] This results in the appearance of dark plumes that are often blown in one direction by local winds. This dust darkens channels under the ice and forms dark shapes that resemble spiders.[77] [78] [79] [80]

Spiders and plumes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Close view of spiders

Polygonal Patterned Ground

Many surfaces on Mars display “polygonal patterned ground.” The polygons can be of different shapes and sizes. They are believed to be caused by ice in the ground. These may still be another marker for underground ice that could be used by future colonists. Before we land crews on Mars, we may very well have detailed maps for where the colonists can obtain water.

  • Wide view of large and small polygons

  • Close, color view of polygons Note: this is an enlargement of the previous wide view image.

  • High center polygons

  • Wide view of crater floor that is covered with polygons Low places still contain frost. Image taken with HiRISE under HiWish program.

  • Enlarged view of polygons from previous image. Dark line is a defect in processing.

  • Enlarged view of polygons from a previous image that shows polygons of varying sizes. Dark lines are defects in processing.

Notes about pictures

Most pictures from spacecraft have some sort of enhancement. For many views of Mars there is not much contrast, so the contrast is enhanced in a process known as stretching. In that process the darkest parts are set to black while the lightest parts are set to be white. The colors for HiRISE images are different than the human eye would see. HiRISE only sees in only 3 colors and sometimes infrared is used rather than red. Displaying colors in this way allows us to better identify rocks and minerals. HiRISE images are about 5 km wide with a 1 km wide band in the center that is in color.[81]


Wide view of layers in Danielson Crater The center band is in color. 

                                               Wide view of layers in Danielson Crater  The center band is in color.

References

  1. ↑ Lorenz, R. and J. Zimbelman. 2014. Dune Worlds How Windblown Sand Shapes Planetary Landscapes. Springer. NY.
  2. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_057071_1890
  3. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_057071_1890
  4. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_057071_1890
  5. ↑ url=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?PSP_008437_1750 |title=HiRISE | High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment |publisher=Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?psp_008437_1750
  6. ↑ Head, J. W.; et al. (2006). "Extensive valley glacier deposits in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for Late Amazonian obliquity-driven climate change". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 241 (3): 663–671.
  7. ↑ Head, J. and D. Marchant. 2006. Evidence for global-scale northern mid-latitude glaciation in the Amazonian period of Mars: Debris-covered glacial and valley glacial deposits in the 30 - 50 N latitude band. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1127
  8. ↑ Head, J. and D. Marchant. 2006. Modifications of the walls of a Noachian crater in Northern Arabia Terra (24 E, 39 N) during northern mid-latitude Amazonian glacial epochs on Mars: Nature and evolution of Lobate Debris Aprons and their relationships to lineated valley fill and glacial systems. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1128
  9. ↑ Head, J., et al. 2006. Extensive valley glacier deposits in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for the late Amazonian obliquity-driven climate change. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 241. 663-671
  10. ↑ Head, J., et al. 2006. Modification if the dichotomy boundary on Mars by Amazonian mid-latitude regional glaciation. Geophys. Res Lett. 33
  11. ↑ Garvin, J. et al. 2002. Lunar Planet. Sci: 33. Abstract # 1255.
  12. ↑ http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA09662
  13. ↑ Carr, M. 2006. The Surface of Mars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN|978-0-521-87201-0
  14. ↑ Squyres, S. 1978. Martian fretted terrain: Flow of erosional debris. Icarus: 34. 600-613.
  15. ↑ Levy, J. et al. 2007. Lineated valley fill and lobate debris apron stratigraphy in Nilosyrtis Mensae, Mars: Evidence for phases of glacial modification of the dichotomy boundary. J. Geophys. Res. 112
  16. ↑ Baker, D., et al. 2009. Flow patterns of lobate debris aprons and lineated valley fill north of Ismeniae Fossae, Mars: Evidence for extensive mid-latitude glaciation in the Late Amazonian. Icarus: 207. 186-209.
  17. ↑ Marchant, D. and J. Head. 2007. Antarctic dry valleys: Microclimate zonation, variable geomorphic processes, and implications for assessing climatic change on Mars. Icarus: 192.187-222
  18. ↑ Dickson, J., et al. 2008. Late Amazonian glaciation at the dichotomy boundary on Mars: Evidence for glacial thickness maxima and multiple glacial phases. Geology: 36 (5) 411-415
  19. ↑ Kress, A., et al. 2006. The nature of the transition from lobate debris aprons to lineated valley fill: Mamers Valles, Northern Arabia Terra-Deuteronilus Mensae region on Mars. Lunar. Planet. Sci. 37. Abstract 1323
  20. ↑ Malin, M., Edgett, K. 2000. Evidence for recent groundwater seepage and surface runoff on Mars. Science 288, 2330–2335.
  21. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_057450_1410
  22. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outflow_channels
  23. ↑ Carr, M.H. (2006), The Surface of Mars. Cambridge Planetary Science Series, Cambridge University Press.
  24. ↑ Baker, V.R.; Carr, M.H.; Gulick, V.C.; Williams, C.R. & Marley, M.S. "Channels and Valley Networks". In Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W. & Matthews, M.S. Mars. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.
  25. ↑ Burr, D.M., McEwan, A.S., and Sakimoto, S.E. (2002). "Recent aqueous floods from the Cerberus Fossae, Mars". Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(1), 10.1029/2001G1013345.
  26. ↑ ^ Baker, V.R. (1982). The Channels of Mars. Austin: Texas University Press.
  27. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossa_(geology)
  28. ↑ James W. Head; Lionel Wilson; Karl L. Mitchell (2003). "Generation of recent massive water floods at Cerberus Fossae, Mars by dike emplacement, cryospheric cracking, and confined aquifer groundwater release". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (11): 2265. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30k..31H. doi:10.1029/2003GL017135
  29. ↑ Burr, D. et al. 2002. Repeated aqueous flooding from the Cerberus Fossae: evidence for very recently extant deep groundwater on Mars. Icarus. 159: 53-73.
  30. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_craters_on_Mars
  31. ↑ Carr, M.H. (2006) The surface of Mars; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK
  32. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/hipod/ESP_054486_2210
  33. ↑ "HiRISE observations of periglacial landforms in Utopia Planitia" (2009). Journal of Geophysical Research 114. doi:10.1029/2008JE003264. Bibcode: 2009JGRE..114.4005L. 
  34. ↑ Morgenstern A, Hauber E, Reiss D, van Gasselt S, Grosse G, Schirrmeister L (2007): Deposition and degradation of a volatile-rich layer in Utopia Planitia, and implications for climate history on Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 112, E06010.
  35. ↑ http://www.uahirise.org/ESP_038821_1235
  36. ↑ {{cite journal | last1 = Dundas | first1 = C. | last2 = Bryrne | first2 = S. | last3 = McEwen | first3 = A. | year = 2015 | title = Modeling the development of martian sublimation thermokarst landforms | url = | journal = Icarus | volume = 262 | issue = | pages = 154–169 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.07.033
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