Difference between revisions of "Syrtis Major quadrangle"

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File:USGS-Mars-MC-13-SyrtisMajorRegion-mola.png
 
File:USGS-Mars-MC-13-SyrtisMajorRegion-mola.png
 
File:Syrtis Major MC-13 - PIA00173.tiff
 
File:Syrtis Major MC-13 - PIA00173.tiff
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File:Collagesyrtismajor.jpg|Typical features of Syrtis Major quadrangle as seen by HiRISE under under HiWish program
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</gallery>
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The Syrtis Major quadrangle covers latitudes 0° to 30° N and  longitudes 270° to 315° W (45-90 E).  Syrtis Major quadrangle includes some other named regions:  Syrtis Major Planum,  and parts of Terra Sabaea and [[Isidis Planitia]].<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref>
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Geologically, Syrtis Major is an ancient shield volcano with a central depression that is elongated in a north-south direction. Calderas are large openings at the top of volcanoes.  Syrtis Major  contains the calderas named Meroe Patera and Nili Patera.<ref>http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/SyrtisMajor.html</ref> Other geologically interesting features in the area include dikes and inverted terrain.  The eastern part of the Quadrangle is the [[Isidis Planitia|Isidris Planitia]] impact crater.
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The [[Beagle 2]] lander crashed in this quadrangle in December 2003.  In January 2015, NASA reported that they had found it in Isidis Planitia (location is about 11.5265 N and 90.4295 E.<ref>Ellison, Doug (16 January 2015). "re Beagle 2 location on Mars => "Using HiView on image ESP_039308_1915_COLOR.JP2 I get 90.4295E 11.5265N"". Twitter & JPL.</ref> <ref>Grecicius, Tony; Dunbar, Brian (16 January 2015). "Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars". NASA. https://twitter.com/doug_ellison/status/556201983443357696 |</ref> <ref><nowiki>="NASA-20150116-TG" Grecicius |first1=Tony |last2=Dunbar |first2=Brian |title=Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars |url=</nowiki>http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/mars/pia19106/ |date=16 January 2015 </ref>  It was imaged by HiRISE onboard  the [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]].  Beagle 2 looked  intact.<ref>name="NASA-20150116" Webster |first=Guy |title='Lost' 2003 Mars Lander Found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/lost-2003-mars-lander-found-by-mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/ |date=16 January 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |</ref> <ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/17/science/space/missing-lander-beagle-2-finally-located-on-mars.html |date=16 January 2015 |work=New York Times</ref> <ref>Amos |first=Jonathan |title=Lost Beagle2 probe found 'intact' on Mars |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-30784886 |date=16 January 2015 </ref>
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In November 2018, NASA announced that [[Jezero Crater]] was chosen as the landing site for the planned Mars 2020 mission.<ref>"SPC-20181119">Wall |first=Mike |title=Jezero Crater or Bust! NASA Picks Landing Site for Mars 2020 Rover |url=https://www.space.com/42486-mars-2020-rover-jezero-crater-landing-site.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=Space.com |</ref>  Jezero Crater is located at 18.855 N and 77.519 E<ref>Wray, James (6 June 2008). "Channel into Jezero Crater Delta". NASA. </ref>
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Perseverance was the name picked for the rover; it landed right on target near the delta on February 18, 2021.<ref>https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8865/touchdown-nasas-mars-perseverance-rover-safely-lands-on-red-planet/</ref>
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==Jezero Crater==
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[[File: 605555-PIA15097-JezeroCrater-Delta.jpg|Jezero Crater Delta]]
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                                            Delta in Jezero Crater
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<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
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File:Jezerocloselabeledforlanding.jpg|Landing site for Perseverance Rover
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File:ESP 045994 1985jezerocroppedcircle.jpg|Another view of landing site
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File:Perseverancebeforeafter.jpg|Before and after views of landing site, as seen from orbit with HiRISE
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</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
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The Syrtis Major quadrangle covers latitudes 0° to 30° N and  longitudes 270° to 315° W (45-90E).  Syrtis Major quadrangle includes some other named regions:  Syrtis Major Planum,  and parts of Terra Sabaea and Isidis Planitia.<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref>
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[[File:45994 1985jezweocompositecompositearrows.jpg|Features near Jezero Crater]]
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Geologically, Syrtis Major is an ancient shield volcano with a central depression that is elongated in a north-south direction. Calderas are large openings at the top of volcanoes.  Syrtis Major  contains the calderas named Meroe Patera and Nili Patera.<ref>http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/SyrtisMajor.html</ref> Other geologically interesting features in the area include dikes and inverted terrain.
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                              Features in Jezero Crater near delta
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The [[Beagle 2]] lander crashed in this quadrangle in December 2003.  In January 2015, NASA reported the ''Beagle 2'' that had found it in [[Isidis Planitia]] (location is about 11.5265 N and 90.4295E.<ref> Ellison, Doug (16 January 2015). "re Beagle 2 location on Mars => "Using HiView on image ESP_039308_1915_COLOR.JP2 I get 90.4295E 11.5265N"". Twitter & JPL.</ref> <ref> Grecicius, Tony; Dunbar, Brian (16 January 2015). "Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars". NASA. https://twitter.com/doug_ellison/status/556201983443357696 |</ref> <ref>="NASA-20150116-TG" Grecicius |first1=Tony |last2=Dunbar |first2=Brian |title=Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/mars/pia19106/ |date=16 January 2015 </ref>  It was imaged by HiRISE onboard  the [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]].  Beagle 2 looked  intact.<ref> name="NASA-20150116" Webster |first=Guy |title='Lost' 2003 Mars Lander Found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/lost-2003-mars-lander-found-by-mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/ |date=16 January 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |</ref> <ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/17/science/space/missing-lander-beagle-2-finally-located-on-mars.html |date=16 January 2015 |work=New York Times</ref> <ref>Amos |first=Jonathan |title=Lost Beagle2 probe found 'intact' on Mars |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-30784886 |date=16 January 2015 </ref>
 
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In November 2018, NASA announced that [[Jezero crater]] was chosen as the landing site for the planned Mars 2020 mission.<ref>"SPC-20181119">Wall |first=Mike |title=Jezero Crater or Bust! NASA Picks Landing Site for Mars 2020 Rover |url=https://www.space.com/42486-mars-2020-rover-jezero-crater-landing-site.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=Space.com |</ref>  [[Jezero Crater]] is located at 18.855N and 77.519 E<ref> Wray, James (6 June 2008). "Channel into Jezero Crater Delta". NASA. </ref>
 
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The rest of this article will cover significant scientific discoveries and show what the landscape looks like close up.  We will be learning and hearing much more about this area when Mars 2020 lands in Jezero Crater.
 
  
 
==How named==
 
==How named==
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==Discovery and history==
 
==Discovery and history==
  
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Syrtis Major is the main marking that people see when they look at Mars through a backyard telescope.  It was discovered by Christiaan Huygens, who included it in a drawing of Mars in 1659 and was originally known as the "Hourglass Sea.”  Different cartographers have given it different names over centuries.  Johann Heinrich von Mädler in 1840 called the feature “Atlantic Canale.”  Richard Proctor called it “Kaiser Sea” in 1867.  A little later, Camille Flammarion called it the “Mer du Sablier” (French for "Hourglass Sea") when he updated Proctor's naming system in 1876.  Syrtis Major, the name that has stock was picked by Giovanni Schiaparelli when he created a map based on observations made during Mars' close approach to Earth in 1877.<ref>Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World| first=Oliver| last=Morton| publisher=Picador USA| location=New York| date=2002| isbn=0-312-24551-3| pages=[https://archive.org/details/mappingmarsscien00mort_0/page/14 14]–15|</ref> <ref>http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm|title=The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery - Chapter 4: Areographers|author=William Sheehan|</ref>
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Syrtis Major is the main marking that people see when they look at Mars through a backyard telescope.  It was discovered by Christiaan Huygens, who included it in a drawing of Mars in 1659.  It was originally known as the "Hourglass Sea.”  Different cartographers have given it different names over centuries.  Johann Heinrich von Mädler in 1840 called the feature “Atlantic Canale.”  Richard Proctor called it “Kaiser Sea” in 1867.  A little later, Camille Flammarion called it the “Mer du Sablier” (French for "Hourglass Sea") when he updated Proctor's naming system in 1876.  Syrtis Major, the name that has stuck was picked by Giovanni Schiaparelli when he created a map based on observations made during Mars' close approach to Earth in 1877.<ref>Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World| first=Oliver| last=Morton| publisher=Picador USA| location=New York| date=2002| isbn=0-312-24551-3| pages=[https://archive.org/details/mappingmarsscien00mort_0/page/14 14]–15|</ref> <ref>http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm|title=The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery - Chapter 4: Areographers|author=William Sheehan|</ref>
  
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== Igneous rocks ==
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==Igneous rocks==
  
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The Syrtis Major region is of great interest to geologists since several types of igneous rocks have been found there with orbiting spacecraft. Besides basalt, dacite and granite have been found there with orbiting satellites. Dacite originates under volcanoes in magma chambers. In magma chambers new minerals and rocks  are put together.  After heavy minerals (olivine and pyroxene) containing iron and magnesium have settled to the bottom, Dacites form at the top of the chamber.  Granite is formed by an even more complex process.<ref>Christensen, P. 2005. "The Many Faces of Mars". ''Scientific American''. July, 2005.</ref>  Some areas of Syrtis Major contain large amounts of the mineral olivine. Olivine turns into other minerals very rapidly in the presence of water, so if we find olivine, we know that the place has been dry for a long time.<ref>http://www.marsdaily.com/news-odyssey-05a.html</ref>
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The Syrtis Major region is of great interest to geologists since several types of igneous rocks have been found there with orbiting spacecraft. Besides basalt, dacite and granite have been found there. Dacite originates under volcanoes in magma chambers. In magma chambers new minerals and rocks  are put together.  After heavy minerals (olivine and pyroxene) containing iron and magnesium have settled to the bottom, Dacites form at the top of the chamber.  Granite is formed by an even more complex process.<ref>Christensen, P. 2005. "The Many Faces of Mars". ''Scientific American''. July, 2005.</ref>  Some areas of Syrtis Major contain large amounts of the mineral olivine. Olivine turns into other minerals very rapidly in the presence of water, so if we find olivine, we know that the place has been dry for a long time.<ref>http://www.marsdaily.com/news-odyssey-05a.html</ref>
  
 
==Minerals==
 
==Minerals==
  
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A variety of important minerals have been discovered near [[Nili Fossae]], a major trough system in Syrtis Major. Besides olivine, other minerals found there include carbonates, aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, and iron oxides.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm "Nasa finds 'missing' Mars mineral"</ref> <ref>Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". ''Journal of Geophysical Research'': 114. E00D06.</ref>  In December 2008, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter found  carbonate minerals, a geologically significant discovery.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm NASA finds 'missing' Mars mineral</ref> <ref>http://www.space.com/30746-mars-missing-atmosphere-lost-in-space.html</ref><ref>Edwards, C., B. Ehlmann. 2015. "Carbon sequestration on Mars". ''Geology'': doi: 10.1130/G36983.1.</ref> Later research published in October 2010, described a large deposit of carbonate rocks found inside Leighton Crater.  The rocks at one time were buried 4 miles below the surface. This discovery has great importance in understanding the history of the planet.  Finding carbonates in an underground location means that Mars may have been warmer and may have had  atmospheric carbon dioxide and ancient seas. Because the carbonates were found near silicate minerals and clays, hydrothermal systems like the deep sea vents on Earth may have been present.<ref>http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/3646/exposed-rocks-point-to water-on-ancient-mars</ref> <ref>1.Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters'', 2010; </ref>
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A variety of important minerals have been discovered near Nili Fossae, a major trough system in Syrtis Major. Besides olivine, other minerals found there include carbonates, aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, and iron oxides.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm "Nasa finds 'missing' Mars mineral"</ref> <ref>Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". ''Journal of Geophysical Research'': 114. E00D06.</ref>  In December 2008, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter found  carbonate minerals, a geologically significant discovery.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm NASA finds 'missing' Mars mineral</ref> <ref>http://www.space.com/30746-mars-missing-atmosphere-lost-in-space.html</ref><ref>Edwards, C., B. Ehlmann. 2015. "Carbon sequestration on Mars". ''Geology'': doi: 10.1130/G36983.1.</ref> Later research published in October 2010, described a large deposit of carbonate rocks found inside Leighton Crater.  The rocks at one time were buried 4 miles below the surface.  
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Other minerals found by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter are aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, iron oxides, and talc.<ref> Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. E00D06.</ref> <ref> Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters'', 2010; </ref>
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This discovery has great importance in understanding the history of the planet.  Finding carbonates in an underground location means that Mars may have been warmer and may have had  atmospheric carbon dioxide and ancient seas. Because the carbonates were found near silicate minerals and clays, hydrothermal systems like the deep sea vents on Earth may have been present.<ref>http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/3646/exposed-rocks-point-to water-on-ancient-mars</ref> <ref>1.Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters'', 2010; </ref>
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Other minerals found by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter are aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, iron oxides, and talc.<ref>Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. E00D06.</ref> <ref>Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters'', 2010; </ref>
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NASA scientists have also discovered that Nili Fossae is the source of plumes of methane, raising the question of whether this source originates from biological sources.<ref>http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2009/01/15/mars-methane-life.html Mars Methane Found, Raising Possibility of Life</ref> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7829315.stm New light on Mars methane mystery</ref>
 
NASA scientists have also discovered that Nili Fossae is the source of plumes of methane, raising the question of whether this source originates from biological sources.<ref>http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2009/01/15/mars-methane-life.html Mars Methane Found, Raising Possibility of Life</ref> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7829315.stm New light on Mars methane mystery</ref>
  
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== Dikes ==
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==Dikes==
  
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Narrow ridges occur in some places on Mars. They may be formed by different means, but some are probably caused by molten rock moving underground and moving along cracks or faults in the rock.  When they cool, walls of hard rock may be formed after being exposed by the erosion of softer, surrounding materials. Such a feature is termed a dike. They are common on Earth—a famous one is Shiprock, New Mexico;<ref>http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/2005/10/13/</ref> <ref>isbn = 0-87842-105-X|title = Roadside Geology of Colorado|last1 = Chronic|first1 = Halka|date = January 1980</ref>  
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Narrow ridges occur in some places on Mars. They may be formed by different means, but some are probably caused by molten rock moving underground and moving along cracks or faults in the rock.  When they cool, walls of hard rock may be formed after being exposed by the erosion of softer, surrounding materials. Such a feature is termed a dike. They are common on Earth—a famous one is Shiprock, New Mexico.<ref>http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/2005/10/13/</ref> <ref>isbn = 0-87842-105-X|title = Roadside Geology of Colorado|last1 = Chronic|first1 = Halka|date = January 1980</ref>  
  
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
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<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">
 
Image:Dikes-large.jpg|Dikes near Shiprock, New Mexico
 
Image:Dikes-large.jpg|Dikes near Shiprock, New Mexico
  
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
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Mapping the presence of dikes allows us to understand how magma (molten rock under the ground) travels and where it could have interacted with surrounding rock, thus producing valuable ores. Deposits of important minerals are also made by dikes and other types of magma movements.  These superhot liquid rocks heat water.  The hot water dissolves minerals that are deposited in cracks in nearby rock.  This process has given us many sources of important minerals.<ref>Namowitz, S. and D. Stone. 1975. ''Earth Science-The World We Live In''. American Book Company. Ny, NY</ref> One would expect a great deal of intrusive igneous activity (molten rock under the ground) to occur on Mars because it is believed there is more igneous activity under the ground than on top, and Mars has many huge volcanoes.  In other words, more liquid rock was under the surface than in the many massive Martian volcanoes.<ref>Crisp, J. 1984. "Rates of magma emplacement and volcanic output". ''J. Volcanlo. Geotherm. Res'': 20. 177-211.</ref>
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Mapping the presence of dikes allows us to understand how magma (molten rock under the ground) travels and where it could have interacted with surrounding rock, thus producing valuable ores. Deposits of important minerals are also made by dikes and other types of magma movements.  These superhot liquid rocks heat water.  The hot water dissolves minerals that are deposited in cracks in nearby rock.  This process involving hot water has given us many sources of important minerals.<ref>Namowitz, S. and D. Stone. 1975. ''Earth Science-The World We Live In''. American Book Company. Ny, NY</ref> One would expect a great deal of intrusive igneous activity (molten rock under the ground) to occur on Mars.  It is accepted that there is more igneous activity under the ground than on top.  More molten rock moves underground than what formed volcanoes.  In other words, more liquid rock was under the surface than in the many massive Martian volcanoes.<ref>Crisp, J. 1984. "Rates of magma emplacement and volcanic output". ''J. Volcanlo. Geotherm. Res'': 20. 177-211.</ref>
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[[File:ESP 046403 2095dikecropped.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Dike]]
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==Linear Ridge Networks==
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[[File:ESP 043410 1980ridges.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Ridges]]
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Some crater floors in the Syrtis Major area show elongated ridges arranged in a complex pattern.<ref> https://www.uahirise.org/hipod/ESP_077982_1920</ref>  Scientists are still debating over the exact origin of these features.  Some have suggested that they are dikes made up of molten rock; others have advanced the idea that other fluids such as water were involved.<ref>Saper, L., J. Mustard. 2013. "Extensive linear ridge networks in Nili Fossae and Nilosyrtis, Mars: implications for fluid flow in the ancient crust". ''Geophysical Research Letters'': 40, 245-249.</ref> The ridges are found where there has been erosion.<ref>Pascuzzo, A., et al.  2019.  The formation of irregular polygonal ridge networks, Nili Fossae, Mars:
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Implications for extensive subsurface channelized fluid flow in the Noachian.  Icarus:  319, 852-868</ref>
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[[File:55119 2080ridgesclosecolor.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Close, color view of ridges]]
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[[File:54842 2100ridgesclosecolor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
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[[File:ESP 055106 2075ridges.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Ridges]]
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ESP 046403 2095dike.jpg|Possible dike, as seen by HiRISE under [[HiWish program]]
 
  
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<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
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File:ESP 085266 2080 ridges syrtis 01.jpg|Wide view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program  The colored strip is about 1 km across. 
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File:ESP 085266 2080 ridges syrtis 02.jpg|Close view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
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File:ESP 085266 2080 ridges syrtis 03.jpg|Close view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program  Cracks are also visible.  Picture is about 1 km across.
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
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==Linear Ridge Networks==
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==Dunes==
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[[File:ESP 053721 1970dunes.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Wide view of dunes]]
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Sand dunes are found all over Mars, especially in low spots like craters and the floors of old river valleys.  Dunes in valleys on Mars usually lie at right angles to the valley walls.
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[[File:53721 1970dunes.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Dunes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
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[[File:53721 1970dunesrgb.jpg|thumb|400px|center|Color view of dune]]
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==Streaks==
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Astronomers have watched the surface of Mars change. For  a long time, astronomers observing regular changes on Mars when the seasons changed, thought that what they were seeing was evidence of vegetation growing. Close inspection with a number of spacecraft, revealed other possibilities. We came to understand that changes are caused by the effects of the wind blowing dust around. Sometimes, fine bright dust settles on the dark basalt rock making the surface appear lighter, at other times the light-toned dust will be blown away; thus making the surface darken—just as if vegetation were growing. Mars has frequent regional or global dust storms that coat the surface with fine bright dust. 
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px">
  
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Some crater floors in the Syrtis Major area show elongated ridges arranged in a complex pattern. Scientists are still debated over the exact origin of these features. Some have suggested that they are dikes made up of molten rock; others have advanced the idea that other fluids such as water were involved.<ref>Saper, L., J. Mustard. 2013. "Extensive linear ridge networks in Nili Fossae and Nilosyrtis, Mars: implications for fluid flow in the ancient crust". ''Geophysical Research Letters'': 40, 245-249.</ref> The ridges are found where there has been erosion.  
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File:ESP 053576 1990lightstreak.jpg|Light-toned streak on the lee ward side of a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Here the crater rim diverted wind and kept it from removing bright dust.
  
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
 
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Image:Huo Hsing Vallis in Syrtis Major.JPG|[[Huo Hsing Vallis]] in Syrtis Major, as seen by THEMIS. Straight ridges may be [[dike (geology)|dikes]] in which liquid rock once flowed.
 
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Image:Huo Hsing Vallis Ridges.JPG|[[Huo Hsing Vallis]] Ridges, as seen by [[HiRISE]]. Ridges may be caused by water moving along faults.
 
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ESP 043410 1980ridges.jpg|Ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program These may be the result of dikes or faults.
 
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
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==Inverted relief==
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48091 2090ridgenetwork.jpg|Ridge network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
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48091 2090ridgeseast.jpg|Ridges near the previous image of a ridge network, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Arrows point to some ridges.
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Some places on Mars show inverted relief. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. Inverted former stream channels may be caused by the deposition of large rocks, cementation, or maybe by lava moving down the channel. In either case later erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridge would be more resistant to erosion. The image below, taken with HiRISE show curved ridges that are old channels that have become inverted.  They have the shape of streams but are above ground.<ref>http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735</ref>
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 +
 
 +
[[File:ESP 057453 2050ridges.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Possible inverted streams, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
 +
 
 +
==Layers==
 +
 
 +
Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers. Rock can form layers in a variety of ways. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.<ref>http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?PSP_008437_1750 |title=HiRISE &#124; High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment |publisher=Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?psp_008437_1750 |</ref>  Many layers on Mars are due to frequent large changes in the rotational axis that cause the climate to undergo drastic changes.  Mars experiences such tilt variations because it lacks a large moon to stabilize its tilt.<ref>Touma J. and J. Wisdom.  1993.  The Chaotic Obliquity of Mars.  Science 259, 1294-1297.</ref> <ref>Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel.  2004.  Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars.  Icarus 170, 343-364.</ref>
 +
A detailed discussion of layering with many Martian examples can be found in ''Sedimentary Geology of Mars''.<ref>Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.). 2012. ''Sedimentary Geology of Mars''. SEPM.</ref>
 +
 
 +
[[File:46403 2095tiltedlayers.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Tilted rock layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
 +
 
 +
[[Image:ESP_027059_2055layers.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Rock layers in Flammarion Crater]]
  
−
48091 2090ridgesmiddle.jpg|Ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
[[File:55106 2075layerscolorcolse.jpg|thumb|400px|center|Close view of layers Only part of the image is in color since HiRISE images only show a middle part in color.]]
  
−
File:55119 2080ridges.jpg|Close view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
==Channels==
  
−
File:55119 2080ridgesclosecolor.jpg|Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
[[File: Wikiperidierchannels.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Channels along wall of Peridier Crater, as seen by CTXcamera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter).]]
  
−
</gallery>
+
There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars.<ref>Baker, V., et al. 2015. "Fluvial geomorphology on Earth-like planetary surfaces: a review". ''Geomorphology''. 245, 149–182.</ref> <ref>Carr, M. 1996. in ''Water on Mars''. Oxford Univ. Press.</ref> Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the [[Mariner 9]] orbiter.<ref>Baker, V. 1982. ''The Channels of Mars''. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX</ref><ref>Baker, V., R. Strom, R., V. Gulick, J. Kargel, G. Komatsu, V. Kale. 1991. "Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars". ''Nature'' 352, 589–594.</ref> <ref>Carr, M. 1979. "Formation of Martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers". ''J. Geophys. Res.'' 84, 2995–300.</ref> <ref>Komar, P. 1979. "Comparisons of the hydraulics of water flows in Martian outflow channels with flows of similar scale on Earth". ''Icarus'' 37, 156–181.</ref> One study,  published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times as rainfall/snowfall from that Martian ocean.<ref>http://spaceref.com/mars/how-much-water-was-needed-to-carve-valleys-on-mars.html</ref> <ref>Luo, W., et al. 2017. "New Martian valley network volume estimate consistent with ancient ocean and warm and wet climate". ''Nature Communications'' 8. Article number: 15766 (2017). doi:10.1038/ncomms15766</ref>
 +
 
 +
Pictures below shown some of the many channels that have been observed on the Red Planet. 
  
−
<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
+
<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">
−
File:ESP 054842 2100ridges.jpg|Wide view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
  
−
File:54842 2100ridgesclosecolor.jpg|Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
ESP 047642 1805channel.jpg|Channel, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 +
ESP 048196 1995channel.jpg|Channel
  
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
−
<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
+
[[File:ESP 054763 2035channelsridges.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Channels and ridges, as seen by HiRISE under [[HiWish program]]]]
−
ESP 052838 2070ridges.jpg|Wide view of ridge networks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
  
−
52838 2070ridgesclose.jpg|Close view of ridge networks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
==Hollows==
  
−
</gallery>
+
[[File: ESP 048131 2055crater.jpg|thumb|500px|left|Crater with eroding floor deposit]]
 +
 
 +
[[File: 48131 2055pitsforming.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Close view of pits forming in crater floor deposit. The box shows the size of a football field for scale.]]
 +
 
 +
Ground with hollowed out spots is common in some places on Mars.  Sometimes giant hollows are formed.  In other places, like the ones shown here, the hollows are of more modest size. Since much of the ground on Mars is ice-rich, when ice leaves high and low spots appear. Ice leaves the ground today on Mars by the process of sublimation.  Ice changes directly to a gas and goes into the atmosphere.
  
−
<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px" >
+
<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">
−
File:ESP 055106 2075ridges.jpg|Ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
File:ESP 053524 2050hollows.jpg|Hollows that formed in crater floor deposit, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
  
−
File:55106 2075ridgescolorcolse.jpg|Close color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
+
Image:Eroding mesa in Iapygia.JPG|Eroding mesa in Syrtis Major. It would be rough to walk across this feature. Image was taken with [[ Mars Global Surveyor]], under the MOC Public Targeting Program.
−
File:ESP 055066 2050ridges.jpg|Wide view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
−
File:55066 2050ridgescolor.jpg|Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
−
File:ESP 055066 2050ridgescolor.jpg|Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
  
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
 +
[[File: 20334pitandcrater.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Close-up of crater deposit that shows both impact craters and pit craters caused by collapse.]]
 +
 +
==See Also==
 +
 +
*[[Dust devils]]
 +
*[[High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE)]]
 +
*[[HiWish program]]
 +
*[[How are features on Mars Named?]]
 +
*[[Jezero Crater]]
 +
*[[Layers on Mars]]
 +
*[[Mars Global Surveyor]]
 +
*[[Mars Perseverance Rover]]
 +
*[[Mars volcanoes]]
 +
*[[Periodic climate changes on Mars]]
 +
*[[Rivers on Mars]]
 +
*[[Sublimation]]
 +
*[[Sublimation landscapes on Mars]]
 +
*[[Water]]
  
 +
==External links==
  
 +
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-SCOHj8u-A  Water on Mars - James Secosky - 2021 Mars Society Virtual Convention -- Tells where water was and where ice is today on Mars (34 minutes)]
  
 +
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wI183V7evbg Seeking Signs of Ancient Life in Jezero Crater with the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover  103 minutes]
  
 +
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGBbke1wJRk Lakes on Mars - Nathalie Cabrol (SETI Talks)]
  
 +
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NiT02piO40c The Geological History of Water on Mars and Astrobiological Implications (Vic Baker)]
  
 +
==References==
 +
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
  
 
[[Category:  Mars Atlas]]
 
[[Category:  Mars Atlas]]

Latest revision as of 09:22, 12 November 2024

Mars topography (MOLA dataset) HiRes (1).jpg
MC-13 Syrtis Major 0–30° N 45–90° E Quadrangles Atlas
  • USGS-Mars-MC-13-SyrtisMajorRegion-mola.png
  • Syrtis Major MC-13 - PIA00173.tiff

  • Typical features of Syrtis Major quadrangle as seen by HiRISE under under HiWish program

The Syrtis Major quadrangle covers latitudes 0° to 30° N and longitudes 270° to 315° W (45-90 E). Syrtis Major quadrangle includes some other named regions: Syrtis Major Planum, and parts of Terra Sabaea and Isidis Planitia.[1]

Geologically, Syrtis Major is an ancient shield volcano with a central depression that is elongated in a north-south direction. Calderas are large openings at the top of volcanoes. Syrtis Major contains the calderas named Meroe Patera and Nili Patera.[2] Other geologically interesting features in the area include dikes and inverted terrain. The eastern part of the Quadrangle is the Isidris Planitia impact crater. The Beagle 2 lander crashed in this quadrangle in December 2003. In January 2015, NASA reported that they had found it in Isidis Planitia (location is about 11.5265 N and 90.4295 E.[3] [4] [5] It was imaged by HiRISE onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Beagle 2 looked intact.[6] [7] [8] In November 2018, NASA announced that Jezero Crater was chosen as the landing site for the planned Mars 2020 mission.[9] Jezero Crater is located at 18.855 N and 77.519 E[10]

Perseverance was the name picked for the rover; it landed right on target near the delta on February 18, 2021.[11]

Jezero Crater

Jezero Crater Delta 

                                           Delta in Jezero Crater

  • Landing site for Perseverance Rover

  • Another view of landing site

  • Before and after views of landing site, as seen from orbit with HiRISE

Features near Jezero Crater 

                             Features in Jezero Crater near delta

How named

Syrtis Major is named after the classical Roman name Syrtis maior for the Gulf of Sidra that is found on the coast of Libya (classical Cyrenaica). Interestingly, Syrtis Major is near Cyrene which accoding to the Bilbe is the place where "Simon" who carried the cross of Jesus was from.[12] [13] [14]

Discovery and history

Syrtis Major is the main marking that people see when they look at Mars through a backyard telescope. It was discovered by Christiaan Huygens, who included it in a drawing of Mars in 1659. It was originally known as the "Hourglass Sea.” Different cartographers have given it different names over centuries. Johann Heinrich von Mädler in 1840 called the feature “Atlantic Canale.” Richard Proctor called it “Kaiser Sea” in 1867. A little later, Camille Flammarion called it the “Mer du Sablier” (French for "Hourglass Sea") when he updated Proctor's naming system in 1876. Syrtis Major, the name that has stuck was picked by Giovanni Schiaparelli when he created a map based on observations made during Mars' close approach to Earth in 1877.[15] [16]

Igneous rocks

The Syrtis Major region is of great interest to geologists since several types of igneous rocks have been found there with orbiting spacecraft. Besides basalt, dacite and granite have been found there. Dacite originates under volcanoes in magma chambers. In magma chambers new minerals and rocks are put together. After heavy minerals (olivine and pyroxene) containing iron and magnesium have settled to the bottom, Dacites form at the top of the chamber. Granite is formed by an even more complex process.[17] Some areas of Syrtis Major contain large amounts of the mineral olivine. Olivine turns into other minerals very rapidly in the presence of water, so if we find olivine, we know that the place has been dry for a long time.[18]

Minerals

A variety of important minerals have been discovered near Nili Fossae, a major trough system in Syrtis Major. Besides olivine, other minerals found there include carbonates, aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, and iron oxides.[19] [20] In December 2008, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter found carbonate minerals, a geologically significant discovery.[21] [22][23] Later research published in October 2010, described a large deposit of carbonate rocks found inside Leighton Crater. The rocks at one time were buried 4 miles below the surface.

This discovery has great importance in understanding the history of the planet. Finding carbonates in an underground location means that Mars may have been warmer and may have had atmospheric carbon dioxide and ancient seas. Because the carbonates were found near silicate minerals and clays, hydrothermal systems like the deep sea vents on Earth may have been present.[24] [25]

Other minerals found by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter are aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, hydrated silica, kaolinite group minerals, iron oxides, and talc.[26] [27]

NASA scientists have also discovered that Nili Fossae is the source of plumes of methane, raising the question of whether this source originates from biological sources.[28] [29]

Dikes

Narrow ridges occur in some places on Mars. They may be formed by different means, but some are probably caused by molten rock moving underground and moving along cracks or faults in the rock. When they cool, walls of hard rock may be formed after being exposed by the erosion of softer, surrounding materials. Such a feature is termed a dike. They are common on Earth—a famous one is Shiprock, New Mexico.[30] [31]

  • Dikes near Shiprock, New Mexico

Mapping the presence of dikes allows us to understand how magma (molten rock under the ground) travels and where it could have interacted with surrounding rock, thus producing valuable ores. Deposits of important minerals are also made by dikes and other types of magma movements. These superhot liquid rocks heat water. The hot water dissolves minerals that are deposited in cracks in nearby rock. This process involving hot water has given us many sources of important minerals.[32] One would expect a great deal of intrusive igneous activity (molten rock under the ground) to occur on Mars. It is accepted that there is more igneous activity under the ground than on top. More molten rock moves underground than what formed volcanoes. In other words, more liquid rock was under the surface than in the many massive Martian volcanoes.[33]

Dike

Linear Ridge Networks

Ridges

Some crater floors in the Syrtis Major area show elongated ridges arranged in a complex pattern.[34] Scientists are still debating over the exact origin of these features. Some have suggested that they are dikes made up of molten rock; others have advanced the idea that other fluids such as water were involved.[35] The ridges are found where there has been erosion.[36]


Close, color view of ridges
Close, color view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program


Ridges

  • Wide view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program The colored strip is about 1 km across.

  • Close view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Cracks are also visible. Picture is about 1 km across.

Dunes

Wide view of dunes

Sand dunes are found all over Mars, especially in low spots like craters and the floors of old river valleys. Dunes in valleys on Mars usually lie at right angles to the valley walls.

Dunes, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Color view of dune

Streaks

Astronomers have watched the surface of Mars change. For a long time, astronomers observing regular changes on Mars when the seasons changed, thought that what they were seeing was evidence of vegetation growing. Close inspection with a number of spacecraft, revealed other possibilities. We came to understand that changes are caused by the effects of the wind blowing dust around. Sometimes, fine bright dust settles on the dark basalt rock making the surface appear lighter, at other times the light-toned dust will be blown away; thus making the surface darken—just as if vegetation were growing. Mars has frequent regional or global dust storms that coat the surface with fine bright dust.

  • Light-toned streak on the lee ward side of a crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Here the crater rim diverted wind and kept it from removing bright dust.

Inverted relief

Some places on Mars show inverted relief. In these locations, a stream bed may be a raised feature, instead of a valley. Inverted former stream channels may be caused by the deposition of large rocks, cementation, or maybe by lava moving down the channel. In either case later erosion would erode the surrounding land and leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridge would be more resistant to erosion. The image below, taken with HiRISE show curved ridges that are old channels that have become inverted. They have the shape of streams but are above ground.[37]


Possible inverted streams, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Layers

Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers. Rock can form layers in a variety of ways. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.[38] Many layers on Mars are due to frequent large changes in the rotational axis that cause the climate to undergo drastic changes. Mars experiences such tilt variations because it lacks a large moon to stabilize its tilt.[39] [40] A detailed discussion of layering with many Martian examples can be found in Sedimentary Geology of Mars.[41]

Tilted rock layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Rock layers in Flammarion Crater
Close view of layers Only part of the image is in color since HiRISE images only show a middle part in color.

Channels

Channels along wall of Peridier Crater, as seen by CTXcamera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter).

There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars.[42] [43] Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter.[44][45] [46] [47] One study, published in June 2017, calculated that the volume of water needed to carve all the channels on Mars was even larger than the proposed ocean that the planet may have had. Water was probably recycled many times as rainfall/snowfall from that Martian ocean.[48] [49]

Pictures below shown some of the many channels that have been observed on the Red Planet.

  • Channel, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Channel

Channels and ridges, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Hollows

Crater with eroding floor deposit
Close view of pits forming in crater floor deposit. The box shows the size of a football field for scale.

Ground with hollowed out spots is common in some places on Mars. Sometimes giant hollows are formed. In other places, like the ones shown here, the hollows are of more modest size. Since much of the ground on Mars is ice-rich, when ice leaves high and low spots appear. Ice leaves the ground today on Mars by the process of sublimation. Ice changes directly to a gas and goes into the atmosphere.

  • Hollows that formed in crater floor deposit, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Eroding mesa in Syrtis Major. It would be rough to walk across this feature. Image was taken with Mars Global Surveyor, under the MOC Public Targeting Program.

Close-up of crater deposit that shows both impact craters and pit craters caused by collapse.

See Also

External links

References

  1. ↑ Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. "Geodesy and Cartography" in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. Mars. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.
  2. ↑ http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/SyrtisMajor.html
  3. ↑ Ellison, Doug (16 January 2015). "re Beagle 2 location on Mars => "Using HiView on image ESP_039308_1915_COLOR.JP2 I get 90.4295E 11.5265N"". Twitter & JPL.
  4. ↑ Grecicius, Tony; Dunbar, Brian (16 January 2015). "Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars". NASA. https://twitter.com/doug_ellison/status/556201983443357696 |
  5. ↑ ="NASA-20150116-TG" Grecicius |first1=Tony |last2=Dunbar |first2=Brian |title=Components of Beagle 2 Flight System on Mars |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/mars/pia19106/ |date=16 January 2015
  6. ↑ name="NASA-20150116" Webster |first=Guy |title='Lost' 2003 Mars Lander Found by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/lost-2003-mars-lander-found-by-mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/ |date=16 January 2015 |work=NASA |
  7. ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/17/science/space/missing-lander-beagle-2-finally-located-on-mars.html |date=16 January 2015 |work=New York Times
  8. ↑ Amos |first=Jonathan |title=Lost Beagle2 probe found 'intact' on Mars |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-30784886 |date=16 January 2015
  9. ↑ "SPC-20181119">Wall |first=Mike |title=Jezero Crater or Bust! NASA Picks Landing Site for Mars 2020 Rover |url=https://www.space.com/42486-mars-2020-rover-jezero-crater-landing-site.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=Space.com |
  10. ↑ Wray, James (6 June 2008). "Channel into Jezero Crater Delta". NASA.
  11. ↑ https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8865/touchdown-nasas-mars-perseverance-rover-safely-lands-on-red-planet/
  12. ↑ https://ferrelljenkins.wordpress.com/2011/03/30/libya-and-the-bible-%E2%80%94-more-than-you-think/
  13. ↑ https://books.google.com/books?id=3JNQAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA18 The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, Volume 59
  14. ↑ Gleig, G. and T. Stackhouse. A History of the holy Bible, corrected and improved. https://books.google.com/books?id=jVIOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA286
  15. ↑ Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World| first=Oliver| last=Morton| publisher=Picador USA| location=New York| date=2002| isbn=0-312-24551-3| pages=14–15|
  16. ↑ http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/mars/chap04.htm%7Ctitle=The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery - Chapter 4: Areographers|author=William Sheehan|
  17. ↑ Christensen, P. 2005. "The Many Faces of Mars". Scientific American. July, 2005.
  18. ↑ http://www.marsdaily.com/news-odyssey-05a.html
  19. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm "Nasa finds 'missing' Mars mineral"
  20. ↑ Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. E00D06.
  21. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7791060.stm NASA finds 'missing' Mars mineral
  22. ↑ http://www.space.com/30746-mars-missing-atmosphere-lost-in-space.html
  23. ↑ Edwards, C., B. Ehlmann. 2015. "Carbon sequestration on Mars". Geology: doi: 10.1130/G36983.1.
  24. ↑ http://www.astrobio.net/pressrelease/3646/exposed-rocks-point-to water-on-ancient-mars
  25. ↑ 1.Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2010;
  26. ↑ Murchie, S. et al. 2009. "A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: 114. E00D06.
  27. ↑ Adrian J. Brown, Simon J. Hook, Alice M. Baldridge, James K. Crowley, Nathan T. Bridges, Bradley J. Thomson, Giles M. Marion, Carlos R. de Souza Filho, Janice L. Bishop. "Hydrothermal formation of Clay-Carbonate alteration assemblages in the Nili Fossae region of Mars". Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2010;
  28. ↑ http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2009/01/15/mars-methane-life.html Mars Methane Found, Raising Possibility of Life
  29. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7829315.stm New light on Mars methane mystery
  30. ↑ http://www.msss.com/mars_images/moc/2005/10/13/
  31. ↑ isbn = 0-87842-105-X|title = Roadside Geology of Colorado|last1 = Chronic|first1 = Halka|date = January 1980
  32. ↑ Namowitz, S. and D. Stone. 1975. Earth Science-The World We Live In. American Book Company. Ny, NY
  33. ↑ Crisp, J. 1984. "Rates of magma emplacement and volcanic output". J. Volcanlo. Geotherm. Res: 20. 177-211.
  34. ↑ https://www.uahirise.org/hipod/ESP_077982_1920
  35. ↑ Saper, L., J. Mustard. 2013. "Extensive linear ridge networks in Nili Fossae and Nilosyrtis, Mars: implications for fluid flow in the ancient crust". Geophysical Research Letters: 40, 245-249.
  36. ↑ Pascuzzo, A., et al. 2019. The formation of irregular polygonal ridge networks, Nili Fossae, Mars: Implications for extensive subsurface channelized fluid flow in the Noachian. Icarus: 319, 852-868
  37. ↑ http://hiroc.lpl.arizona.edu/images/PSP/diafotizo.php?ID=PSP_002279_1735
  38. ↑ http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?PSP_008437_1750 |title=HiRISE | High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment |publisher=Hirise.lpl.arizona.edu?psp_008437_1750 |
  39. ↑ Touma J. and J. Wisdom. 1993. The Chaotic Obliquity of Mars. Science 259, 1294-1297.
  40. ↑ Laskar, J., A. Correia, M. Gastineau, F. Joutel, B. Levrard, and P. Robutel. 2004. Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars. Icarus 170, 343-364.
  41. ↑ Grotzinger, J. and R. Milliken (eds.). 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. SEPM.
  42. ↑ Baker, V., et al. 2015. "Fluvial geomorphology on Earth-like planetary surfaces: a review". Geomorphology. 245, 149–182.
  43. ↑ Carr, M. 1996. in Water on Mars. Oxford Univ. Press.
  44. ↑ Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
  45. ↑ Baker, V., R. Strom, R., V. Gulick, J. Kargel, G. Komatsu, V. Kale. 1991. "Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars". Nature 352, 589–594.
  46. ↑ Carr, M. 1979. "Formation of Martian flood features by release of water from confined aquifers". J. Geophys. Res. 84, 2995–300.
  47. ↑ Komar, P. 1979. "Comparisons of the hydraulics of water flows in Martian outflow channels with flows of similar scale on Earth". Icarus 37, 156–181.
  48. ↑ http://spaceref.com/mars/how-much-water-was-needed-to-carve-valleys-on-mars.html
  49. ↑ Luo, W., et al. 2017. "New Martian valley network volume estimate consistent with ancient ocean and warm and wet climate". Nature Communications 8. Article number: 15766 (2017). doi:10.1038/ncomms15766
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