Difference between revisions of "Lunae Palus quadrangle"

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[[File:USGS-Mars-MC-10-LunaePalusRegion-mola.png|600pxr|Image| MOLA showing names of some features.  Colors refer to elevation.]]
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{{Mars atlas}}
  
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[[File:PIA00170-MC-10-LunaePalusRegion-19980605.jpg|600pxr|Labeled image of  the Lunae Palus Quadrangle (MC-10). The central part includes Lunae Planum which, on the west and north borders, is dissected by Kasei Valles which, in turn, terminates in Chryse Planitia ]]
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{| class="wikitable sortable"
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|MC-10
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|[[Lunae Palus quadrangle|Lunae Palus]]
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|0–30° N
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|45–90° W
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|[[Mars Quadrangles|Quadrangles]]
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|[[Mars Atlas|Atlas]]
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|}
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Article written by Jim Secosky. Jim is a retired science teacher who has used the Hubble Space Telescope, the Mars Global Surveyor, and HiRISE.<gallery widths="400" heights="300">
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File:USGS-Mars-MC-10-LunaePalusRegion-mola.png|Lunae Palus elevations
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File:PIA00170-MC-10-LunaePalusRegion-19980605.jpg
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</gallery>
  
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[[File:Wikimolaargyre.jpg |600pxr|Image| MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.]]
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[[File:Wikimolaargyre.jpg | MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.]]
  
 
MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.
 
MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.
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The Lunae Palus quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The quadrangle is also referred to as MC-10 (Mars Chart-10).<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref> Lunae Planum and parts of Xanthe Terra and Chryse Planitia are found in the Lunae Palus quadrangle.  The Lunae Palus quadrangle contains many ancient river valleys.
 
The Lunae Palus quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The quadrangle is also referred to as MC-10 (Mars Chart-10).<ref>Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. ''Mars.'' University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.</ref> Lunae Planum and parts of Xanthe Terra and Chryse Planitia are found in the Lunae Palus quadrangle.  The Lunae Palus quadrangle contains many ancient river valleys.
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The quadrangle covers the area from 45° to 90° west longitude (315 E-270 E) and 0° to 30° north latitude.  The Viking I Lander set down in the quadrangle on July 20, 1976, at 22.4 N and 47.5 W (312.5 E).  It was the first robot spacecraft to successfully land on the Red Planet.<ref>[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4212/ch10.html On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet. 1958–1978, SP-4212. (NASA)]</ref>
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The quadrangle covers the area from 45° to 90° west longitude (315 E-270 E) and 0° to 30° north latitude.  The Viking I Lander set down in the quadrangle on July 20, 1976, at 22.4 N and 47.5 W (312.5 E).  It was the first robot spacecraft to successfully land on the Red Planet.<ref>[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4212/ch10.html On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet. 1958–1978, SP-4212. (NASA)]</ref>  In this article, some of the best pictures from a number of spacecraft will show what the landscape looks like in this region. The origins and significance of all features will be explained as they are currently understood.
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==Mars Science Laboratory==
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Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory.  <ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features/ianichaos</ref> and to examine its sediment layers.  The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory landing was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle.
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<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
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File:Hypanis Vallis.JPG|Hypanis Vallis is one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory  Scale bar is 500 meters long.
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</gallery>
  
 
==Viking I Mission==
 
==Viking I Mission==
  
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File:Mars Viking 11a097wide.png|Dunes and rocks on Mars, as seen by Viking I Lander.   
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[[File:Mars Viking 11a097wide.png|Dunes and rocks on Mars, as seen by Viking I Lander.   
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Mars Viking 11d128.png|Trenches dug into the Martian surface by the Viking I Lander.  The color is fairly accurate with the pink sky.  The trenches are in the "Sandy Flats" area of the landing site at Chryse Planitia. The boom holding the meteorology sensors is at left.  Click on image to see more details.
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Mars Viking 11d128.png|Trenches dug into the Martian surface by the Viking I Lander.  The color is fairly accurate with the pink sky.  The trenches are in the "Sandy Flats" area of the landing site at Chryse Planitia. The boom holding the meteorology sensors is at left.  Click on image to see more details.]]
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Viking 1 found the Martian sky a light pink and many rocks.  It found the wind speed to be the wind usually 7 meters per second (16 miles per hour).  Some boulders displayed erosion by the wind.<ref>Mutch, T. et al.  1976.  "The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 2 Lander".  ''Science'': 194. 1277–1283.</ref> Many small sand dunes were observed to be still active.  Viking found a hard crust on the top of the soil that was comparable to a deposit, called caliche which is common in the U.S. Southwest.<ref>Clark, B. et al.  1978.  Implications of Abundant Hygroscopic Minerals in the Martian Regolith.  Icarus: 34. 645–665</ref> <ref>Toulmin III, P. et al.  1977.  "Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of the Viking Inorganic Chemical Results".  ''Journal of Geophysical Research'': 82. 4624–4634</ref> These  crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface.<ref>Arvidson, R. A. Binder, and K. Jones.  1976.  "The Surface of Mars".  ''Scientific American'': 238. 76–89.</ref>
 
Viking 1 found the Martian sky a light pink and many rocks.  It found the wind speed to be the wind usually 7 meters per second (16 miles per hour).  Some boulders displayed erosion by the wind.<ref>Mutch, T. et al.  1976.  "The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 2 Lander".  ''Science'': 194. 1277–1283.</ref> Many small sand dunes were observed to be still active.  Viking found a hard crust on the top of the soil that was comparable to a deposit, called caliche which is common in the U.S. Southwest.<ref>Clark, B. et al.  1978.  Implications of Abundant Hygroscopic Minerals in the Martian Regolith.  Icarus: 34. 645–665</ref> <ref>Toulmin III, P. et al.  1977.  "Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of the Viking Inorganic Chemical Results".  ''Journal of Geophysical Research'': 82. 4624–4634</ref> These  crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface.<ref>Arvidson, R. A. Binder, and K. Jones.  1976.  "The Surface of Mars".  ''Scientific American'': 238. 76–89.</ref>
  
 
[[File:MarsViking1Lander-BigJoeRock-19780211.jpg|thumb|400px|left|File:26420gullieswide.jpg||Big Joe" rock on [[Mars]]—viewed by the [[Viking 1]] Lander (February 11, 1978).]]
 
[[File:MarsViking1Lander-BigJoeRock-19780211.jpg|thumb|400px|left|File:26420gullieswide.jpg||Big Joe" rock on [[Mars]]—viewed by the [[Viking 1]] Lander (February 11, 1978).]]
  
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The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic lavas.  At this location the soil contained abundant silicon and iron, together with significant amounts of magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, calcium, and titanium.  Trace elements, strontium and yttrium, were identified.  Potassium levels were five times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil than in the bulk soil beneath.  Scientists reasoned that  the sulfur may be present as sulfates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, or iron; however, a sulfide of iron is also possible.<ref>Clark, B. et al.  1976.  "Inorganic Analysis of Martian Samples at the Viking Landing Sites".  ''Science'':  194. 1283–1288.</ref>  This finding was consistent with measurements from both the [[Spirit]] Rover and the [[Opportunity]] Rover ;  hence,  sulfates may be common on the Martian surface.<ref>[http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040625a.html Press Release Images: Opportunity. 25 June 2004 (JPL/NASA)]</ref>  Using results from the chemical measurements, mineral models suggest that the soil could be a mixture of about 80% iron-rich clay], about 10% magnesium sulfate ([[kieserite?), about 5% carbonate (calcite), and about 5% iron oxides  (hematite, magnetite, goethite?).  These minerals are typical weathering products of mafic igneous rocks, such as basalt.<ref>Baird, A.  et al.  1976.  "Mineralogic and Petrologic Implications of Viking Geochemical Results From Mars: Interim Report".  ''Science'': 194. 1288–1293.</ref> Studies with magnets aboard the landers showed that the soil is between 3 and 7 percent magnetic materials by weight.  The magnetic chemicals could be magnetite and maghemite.  These could come from the weathering of basalt rock.<ref>Hargraves, R. et al. 1976.  Viking Magnetic Properties Investigation: Further Results.  Science: 194.  1303–1309.</ref><ref>Arvidson, R, A. Binder, and K. Jones.  "The Surface of Mars".  ''Scientific American''</ref>  Experiments carried out by the Mars ''[[Spirit]]'' rover (landed in 2004) indicated that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars.  Magnetite was found in the soil and that the most magnetic part of the soil was dark.  Magnetite is very dark.<ref>Bertelsen, P. et al.  2004.  "Magnetic Properties Experiments on the Mars Exploration rover Spirit at Gusev Crater".  ''Science'': 305. 827–829.</ref>
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The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic lavas.  At this location the soil contained abundant silicon and iron, together with significant amounts of magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, calcium, and titanium.  Trace elements, strontium and yttrium, were identified.  Potassium levels were five times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil than in the bulk soil beneath.  Scientists reasoned that  the sulfur may be present as sulfates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, or iron; however, a sulfide of iron is also possible.<ref>Clark, B. et al.  1976.  "Inorganic Analysis of Martian Samples at the Viking Landing Sites".  ''Science'':  194. 1283–1288.</ref>  This finding was consistent with measurements from both the [[Spirit]] Rover and the [[Opportunity]] Rover ;  hence,  sulfates may be common on the Martian surface.<ref>[http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040625a.html Press Release Images: Opportunity. 25 June 2004 (JPL/NASA)]</ref>  Using results from the chemical measurements, mineral models suggest that the soil could be a mixture of about 80% iron-rich clay, about 10% magnesium sulfate (kieserite?), about 5% carbonate (calcite), and about 5% iron oxides  (hematite, magnetite, goethite?).  These minerals are typical weathering products of mafic igneous rocks, such as basalt.<ref>Baird, A.  et al.  1976.  "Mineralogic and Petrologic Implications of Viking Geochemical Results From Mars: Interim Report".  ''Science'': 194. 1288–1293.</ref> Studies with magnets aboard the landers showed that the soil is between 3 and 7 percent magnetic materials by weight.  The magnetic chemicals could be magnetite and maghemite.  These could come from the weathering of basalt rock.<ref>Hargraves, R. et al. 1976.  Viking Magnetic Properties Investigation: Further Results.  Science: 194.  1303–1309.</ref><ref>Arvidson, R, A. Binder, and K. Jones.  "The Surface of Mars".  ''Scientific American''</ref>  Experiments carried out by the Mars ''[[Spirit]]'' rover (landed in 2004) indicated that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars.  Magnetite was found in the soil and that the most magnetic part of the soil was dark.  Magnetite is very dark.<ref>Bertelsen, P. et al.  2004.  "Magnetic Properties Experiments on the Mars Exploration rover Spirit at Gusev Crater".  ''Science'': 305. 827–829.</ref>
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Viking did three experiments looking for life.  The results were surprising and interesting.  Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil.  But a few still believe the results were due to living reactions.  No organic chemicals were found in the soil; hence nearly all the scientific community thought that no life was found because no organic chemicals were detected. Not finding any organics was unusual since meteorites raining on Mars for 5 billion years or so would surely bring some organics.  Nevertheless, once must keep in mind that dry areas of Antarctica do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks.<ref>Friedmann, E.  1982.  "Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert".  ''Science'': 215. 1045–1052.</ref>  Mars has almost no ozone layer, unlike the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals.<ref>Hartmann, W.  2003.  ''A Traveler's Guide to Mars''.  Workman Publishing.  NY NY.</ref>  Perchlorate may be the oxidizing chemical.  The Phoenix Lander discovered the chemical perchlorate in the Martian Soil.  Perchlorate is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface.<ref>[http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/science/July-August/NASA-Attempts-to-Quash-Mars-Rumors.html NASA Attempts to Quash Mars Rumors.] Cara McDonough, August 7, 2008.</ref> If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface.
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Viking did three experiments looking for life.  The results were surprising and interesting.  Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil.  But a few still believe the results were due to living reactions.  No organic chemicals were found in the soil; hence nearly all the scientific community thought that no life was found because no organic chemicals were detected. Not finding any organics was unusual since meteorites raining on Mars for 5 billion years or so would surely bring some organics.  Nevertheless, one must keep in mind that dry areas of Antarctica do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks.<ref>Friedmann, E.  1982.  "Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert".  ''Science'': 215. 1045–1052.</ref>  Mars has almost no ozone layer, unlike the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals.<ref>Hartmann, W.  2003.  ''A Traveler's Guide to Mars''.  Workman Publishing.  NY NY.</ref>  Perchlorate may be the oxidizing chemical.  The Phoenix Lander discovered the chemical perchlorate in the Martian Soil.  Perchlorate is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface.<ref>[http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/science/July-August/NASA-Attempts-to-Quash-Mars-Rumors.html NASA Attempts to Quash Mars Rumors.] Cara McDonough, August 7, 2008.</ref> If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface.
 
The question of life on Mars received a new, important twist when research, published in the ''Journal of Geophysical Research'' in September 2010, proposed that organic compounds were actually present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. The study's authors found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane-- the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. So, organic chemicals (maybe from organisms) may have initially been present in the soil but were broken down by perchlorate. <ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100904081050.htm NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Did Viking Mars landers find life's building blocks? Missing piece inspires new look at puzzle." Science Daily 5 September 2010.]</ref>
 
The question of life on Mars received a new, important twist when research, published in the ''Journal of Geophysical Research'' in September 2010, proposed that organic compounds were actually present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. The study's authors found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane-- the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. So, organic chemicals (maybe from organisms) may have initially been present in the soil but were broken down by perchlorate. <ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100904081050.htm NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Did Viking Mars landers find life's building blocks? Missing piece inspires new look at puzzle." Science Daily 5 September 2010.]</ref>
  
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"Vallis" (plural "valles") is the Latin word for valley. It is used  for the naming of landform features on other planets.
 
"Vallis" (plural "valles") is the Latin word for valley. It is used  for the naming of landform features on other planets.
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"Vallis" was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when we probes were first sent to Mars.  The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas.  Orbiting cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref >author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|date=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7</ref> <ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P.  1998.  Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars.  National Geographic Society.  Washington D.C.</ref> <ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al.  1990.  ''The Atlas of the Solar System''. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.</ref>
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"Vallis" was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when we probes were first sent to Mars.  The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas.  <ref>author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=7 March 2011|date=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7</ref> <ref name="Raeburn1998">Raeburn, P.  1998.  Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars.  National Geographic Society.  Washington D.C.</ref> <ref name="Moore1990">Moore, P. et al.  1990.  ''The Atlas of the Solar System''. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.</ref>
  
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<gallery class="center" widths="190px" heights="180px">
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<gallery class="center" widths="380px" heights="360px">
 
Image:Nanedi Valles.jpg|Nanedi Valles, as seen by THEMIS
 
Image:Nanedi Valles.jpg|Nanedi Valles, as seen by THEMIS
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File:ESP 084835 1860 channels nanedi.jpg|Portion of Nanedi Valles, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program  Colored strip is about 1 Km across.
 
File:ESP 056904 2015valley.jpg|Close view of part of Bahram Vallis, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
File:ESP 056904 2015valley.jpg|Close view of part of Bahram Vallis, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
  
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  
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[[File:Vallesmaumeevedraboxmap.jpg |600pxr| Map showing relative positions of several valleys in Lunae Palus quadrangle, including Vedra Valles, Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles.  Box indicates where these valleys can be found.  Colors show elevation.]]
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[[File:Vallesmaumeevedraboxmap.jpg | Map showing relative positions of several valleys in Lunae Palus quadrangle, including Vedra Valles, Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles.  Box indicates where these valleys can be found.  Colors show elevation.]]
  
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== River valleys observed by Viking orbiters ==
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==River valleys observed by Viking orbiters==
  
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The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars.  Huge river valleys were found in many areas.  They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref > *Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson</ref>  <ref > Raeburn, P. 1998. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars. National Geographic Society. Washington D.C.</ref>  <ref >Moore, P. et al. 1990. The Atlas of the Solar System. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.</ref>
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The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars.  Huge river valleys were found in many areas.  They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.<ref>*Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson</ref>  <ref>Raeburn, P. 1998. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars. National Geographic Society. Washington D.C.</ref>  <ref>Moore, P. et al. 1990. The Atlas of the Solar System. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.</ref>
  
 
[[File:Detail of Maja Valles Flow.jpg |thumb|400px|left|File:26420gullieswide.jpg|Maja Valles, an outflow channel, shaped land around Dromore crater]]
 
[[File:Detail of Maja Valles Flow.jpg |thumb|400px|left|File:26420gullieswide.jpg|Maja Valles, an outflow channel, shaped land around Dromore crater]]
  
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[[File:Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg |thumb|400px|center|File:26420gullieswide.jpg| Teardrop-shaped islands formed from water]]
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[[File:Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg |thumb|400px|center| Teardrop-shaped islands formed from water]]
  
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== Mars Science Laboratory ==
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==Kasei Valles==
  
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Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory.  <ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features/ianichaos</ref> and to examine its sediment layers.  The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory landing was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle.
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One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of the largest outflow channels on Mars. Like other outflow channels, it was carved by liquid water, probably during gigantic floods.
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Kasei is about 2,400 km (1500 miles) long. Some sections of Kasei Valles are 300 km (190 miles) wide.  It begins in Echus Chasma, near Valles Marineris, and empties into Chryse Planitia, not far from where [[Viking 1]] landed. Sacra Mensa, a large tableland, divides Kasei into northern and southern channels.  Kasei Valles is one of the longest continuous outflow channels on Mars. At around 20° north latitude Kasei Valles splits into two channels, called Kasei Vallis Canyon and North Kasei Channel.  These branches recombine at around 63° west longitude.  Some parts of Kasei Valles are 2–3 km deep.<ref>Baker, V.  1982.  The Channels of Mars.  University of Texas Press.  Austin</ref>
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Scientists suggest it was formed several episodes of flooding and maybe by some glacial activity.<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features_kaseivalles</ref>
  
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[[File:Hypanis Vallis.JPG|thumb|400px|left|File:26420gullieswide.jpg|Hypanis Vallis is one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory  Scale bar is 500 meters long.]]
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[[File:Kasei Valles topolabled.JPG |500px|right|Area around northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles,  Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles,  Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.]]
  
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== Kasei Valles ==
 
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One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of the largest outflow channels on Mars. Like other outflow channels, it was carved by liquid water, probably during gigantic floods.
 
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Kasei is about 2,400 km (1500 miles) long. Some sections of Kasei Valles are 300 km (190 miles) wide.  It begins in Echus Chasma, near Valles Marineris, and empties into Chryse Planitia, not far from where [[Viking 1]] landed. Sacra Mensa, a large tableland, divides Kasei into northern and southern channels.  It is one of the longest continuous outflow channels on Mars. At around 20° north latitude Kasei Valles splits into two channels, called Kasei Vallis Canyon and North Kasei Channel.  These branches recombine at around 63° west longitude.  Some parts of Kasei Valles are 2–3 km deep.<ref>Baker, V.  1982.  The Channels of Mars.  University of Texas Press.  Austin</ref>
 
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Scientists suggest it was formed several episodes of flooding and maybe by some glacial activity.<ref>http://themis.asu.edu/features_kaseivalles</ref>
 
  
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[[File:Kasei Valles topolabled.JPG |400px|right Area around northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles,  Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles, Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles.  Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.]]
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The map at the right shows relationships among Kasei Valles,  Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles,Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles.  Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.
  
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Area around northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles, Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles,  Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles.  Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.
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[[File:Kasei Vallesthemis.jpg|thumb|400px|center|Kasei Valles, as seen by THEMIS]]
  
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[[File:Kasei Vallesthemis.jpg|thumb|400px|left| Kasei Valles, as seen by THEMIS]]
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[[File:55414 2030layersclose.jpg |thumb|300px|left|Close view of layers along wall of Kasei Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
  
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[[File:55414 2030layersclose.jpg |thumb|400px|right| Close view of layers along wall of Kasei Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
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<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
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ESP 052645 2030layers.jpg|Layers and channel in Kasei Valles region, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
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File:Wide view channels ESP 075855 2100 with HiRISE 01.jpg|Wide view of small channels in Kasei Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.
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File:Context for channels as seen in ESP 075855 2100 03.jpg|Context picture that shows locations of channels in ESP_075855_2100.
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File:Channels ESP 075855 2100 with HiRISE 02.jpg|Channels in Kasei Valles  This HiRISE picture is about 5 Km across.
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</gallery>
  
 
==Deltas==
 
==Deltas==
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[[File:Delta as seen by HiRISE.jpg|thumb|400px|center| Delta that fills a crater, as seen by HiRISE.]]
 
[[File:Delta as seen by HiRISE.jpg|thumb|400px|center| Delta that fills a crater, as seen by HiRISE.]]
  
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==Craters==
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==Impact Craters==
  
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[[File:WikiESP 034567 1960craterlunaepalus.jpg|600pxr|Image| Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
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[[File:WikiESP 034567 1960craterlunaepalus.jpg| Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
  
 
Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 
Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
−
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits.  As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/</ref>  The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref >Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson</ref>  Sometimes craters will display layers.  Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.
+
 
 +
 
 +
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits.  As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.<ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/</ref>  The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.<ref>Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson</ref>  Sometimes craters will display layers.  Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.
  
 
[[File:Santa Fe Crater wide view.jpg|thumb|400px|left| West side of Santa Fe Crater]]
 
[[File:Santa Fe Crater wide view.jpg|thumb|400px|left| West side of Santa Fe Crater]]
  
−
[[File:Montevallo Crater.jpg |thumb|400px|right| Montevallo Crater, as seen by THEMIS.  Image shows a landslide on the north rim.]]
+
[[File:Montevallo Crater.jpg |thumb|400px|center| Montevallo Crater, as seen by THEMIS.  Image shows a landslide on the north rim.]]
 +
 
 +
 
 +
[[File:Labeatis Fossae.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS one of many troughs (long narrow depressions called fossae {Latin})  Fossae form from the crustal stretching by weight of volcanoes.<ref>http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html</ref> <ref>Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel.  2007.  Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars.  Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)</ref>]]
 +
 
 +
==Layers==
  
−
==Fossa==
+
<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
  
−
Large troughs (long narrow depressions) are called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural.<ref>http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html</ref> Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks.  The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano.  Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.<ref>Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel.  2007.  Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)</ref>
+
File:Layers in Monument Valley.jpg|Layers in Monument Valley.  These are accepted as being formed, at least in part by deposition in a large body of water.  Since Mars contains similar layers, water remains as a major cause of layering on Mars.
  
−
[[File:Labeatis Fossae.jpg|thumb|400px|left| Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS]]
+
File:ESP 055568 2050layers.jpg|Wide view of layers]]
 +
File:55568 2050layers.jpg | Close view of layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
  
−
==Layers==
+
</gallery>
 +
 
 +
==More pictures from Lunae Palus quadrangle==
 +
 
 +
<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
 +
 
 +
File:Mesa with dark slope streaks in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 01.jpg|Wide view of mesas with dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 +
File:Mesa with dark slope streaks in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 02.jpg|Large group of dark slope streaks along a mesa wall, as seen by HIRISE
 +
File:Dark slope streaks in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 03.jpg|Close view of end of dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE
 +
File:Mesa with dark slope streaks in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 04.jpg|Dark slope streaks along a mesa wall, as seen by HIRISE  Picture is about 1 km across.
 +
 
 +
File:Dark slope streaks in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 05.jpg|Close view of end of dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE
  
−
[[File:Layers in Monument Valley.jpg|thumb|400px|left| Layers in Monument Valley.  These are accepted as being formed, at least in part, by water deposition.  Since Mars contains similar layers, water remains as a major cause of layering on Mars.]]
+
</gallery>
−
[[File:ESP 055568 2050layers.jpg|thumb|400px|center| Wide view of layers]]
 
−
[[File:55568 2050layers.jpg |thumb|400px|right| Close view of layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program]]
 
  
−
== More pictures from Lunae Palus quadrangle ==
 
  
−
[[File:Ister Chaos.jpg |600pxr| Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE]]
+
[[File:Ister Chaos.jpg | Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE]]
  
  
−
Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE
+
                                                          Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE
  
  
Line 109: Line 150:
  
 
[[File:ESP 048914 1955lavaflows.jpg|thumb|400px|center| Lava flows]]
 
[[File:ESP 048914 1955lavaflows.jpg|thumb|400px|center| Lava flows]]
 +
 +
 +
[[File:Labeatis Fossae.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS one of many troughs (long narrow depressions called fossae {Latin})  Fossae form from the crustal stretching by weight of volcanoes.<ref>http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html</ref> <ref>Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel.  2007.  Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars.  Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)</ref>]]
 +
 +
 +
 +
 +
 +
<gallery class="center"  widths="380px" heights="360px">
 +
 +
File:Square shadow in Lunae Palus quadrangle, Mars 06.jpg|Square shadow as seen by HiRISE  With the many tens of thousands of pictures taken with HiRISE some are bound to be strange--that is this was not staged by aliens.
 +
 +
File:Close view channels and TAR's ESP 075855 2100 with HiRISE 04.jpg|Channels that contain transverse aeolian ridges (TAR's), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
 +
File:Close view channels and TAR's in ESP 075855 2100 with HiRISE 05.jpg|Close view of transverse aeolian ridges (TAR's), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program  This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.
 +
 +
</gallery>
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
Line 114: Line 171:
 
*[[High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE)]]
 
*[[High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE)]]
 
*[[Geography of Mars]]
 
*[[Geography of Mars]]
−
*[[High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE)]]
 
 
*[[Layers on Mars]]
 
*[[Layers on Mars]]
 
*[[Rivers on Mars]]
 
*[[Rivers on Mars]]
Line 122: Line 178:
 
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
  
−
==References==
 
−
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
  
 +
==Recommended reading==
  
−
==Recommended reading==
 
 
*Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
 
*Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
 
*Grotzinger, J., R. Milliken (eds.).  2012.  Sedimentary Geology of Mars.  Tulsa:  Society for Sedimentary Geology.
 
*Grotzinger, J., R. Milliken (eds.).  2012.  Sedimentary Geology of Mars.  Tulsa:  Society for Sedimentary Geology.
 
*Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson
 
*Kieffer, H., et al.  (eds)  1992.  Mars.  The University of Arizona Press. Tucson
 +
 +
[[Category:Mars Atlas]]

Latest revision as of 06:33, 16 October 2024

Mars topography (MOLA dataset) HiRes (1).jpg
MC-10 Lunae Palus 0–30° N 45–90° W Quadrangles Atlas

Article written by Jim Secosky. Jim is a retired science teacher who has used the Hubble Space Telescope, the Mars Global Surveyor, and HiRISE.

  • Lunae Palus elevations

  • PIA00170-MC-10-LunaePalusRegion-19980605.jpg

MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.

MOLA map showing boundaries for Lunae Planum and other regions. Colors indicate elevations.


The Lunae Palus quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The quadrangle is also referred to as MC-10 (Mars Chart-10).[1] Lunae Planum and parts of Xanthe Terra and Chryse Planitia are found in the Lunae Palus quadrangle. The Lunae Palus quadrangle contains many ancient river valleys.

The quadrangle covers the area from 45° to 90° west longitude (315 E-270 E) and 0° to 30° north latitude. The Viking I Lander set down in the quadrangle on July 20, 1976, at 22.4 N and 47.5 W (312.5 E). It was the first robot spacecraft to successfully land on the Red Planet.[2] In this article, some of the best pictures from a number of spacecraft will show what the landscape looks like in this region. The origins and significance of all features will be explained as they are currently understood.

Mars Science Laboratory

Hypanis Vallis, in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, was one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory. [3] and to examine its sediment layers. The site eventually settled on for the Mars Science Laboratory landing was Gale Crater in the Aeolis quadrangle.

  • Hypanis Vallis is one of the sites proposed as a landing site for the Mars Science Laboratory Scale bar is 500 meters long.

Viking I Mission

Trenches dug into the Martian surface by the Viking I Lander. The color is fairly accurate with the pink sky. The trenches are in the "Sandy Flats" area of the landing site at Chryse Planitia. The boom holding the meteorology sensors is at left. Click on image to see more details.

Viking 1 found the Martian sky a light pink and many rocks. It found the wind speed to be the wind usually 7 meters per second (16 miles per hour). Some boulders displayed erosion by the wind.[4] Many small sand dunes were observed to be still active. Viking found a hard crust on the top of the soil that was comparable to a deposit, called caliche which is common in the U.S. Southwest.[5] [6] These crusts are formed by solutions of minerals moving up through soil and evaporating at the surface.[7]

Big Joe" rock on Mars—viewed by the Viking 1 Lander (February 11, 1978).

The soil resembled those produced from the weathering of basaltic lavas. At this location the soil contained abundant silicon and iron, together with significant amounts of magnesium, aluminum, sulfur, calcium, and titanium. Trace elements, strontium and yttrium, were identified. Potassium levels were five times lower than the average for the Earth's crust. Some chemicals in the soil contained sulfur and chlorine that were like those remaining after the evaporation of sea water. Sulfur was more concentrated in the crust on top of the soil than in the bulk soil beneath. Scientists reasoned that the sulfur may be present as sulfates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, or iron; however, a sulfide of iron is also possible.[8] This finding was consistent with measurements from both the Spirit Rover and the Opportunity Rover ; hence, sulfates may be common on the Martian surface.[9] Using results from the chemical measurements, mineral models suggest that the soil could be a mixture of about 80% iron-rich clay, about 10% magnesium sulfate (kieserite?), about 5% carbonate (calcite), and about 5% iron oxides (hematite, magnetite, goethite?). These minerals are typical weathering products of mafic igneous rocks, such as basalt.[10] Studies with magnets aboard the landers showed that the soil is between 3 and 7 percent magnetic materials by weight. The magnetic chemicals could be magnetite and maghemite. These could come from the weathering of basalt rock.[11][12] Experiments carried out by the Mars Spirit rover (landed in 2004) indicated that magnetite could explain the magnetic nature of the dust and soil on Mars. Magnetite was found in the soil and that the most magnetic part of the soil was dark. Magnetite is very dark.[13] Viking did three experiments looking for life. The results were surprising and interesting. Most scientists now believe that the data were due to inorganic chemical reactions of the soil. But a few still believe the results were due to living reactions. No organic chemicals were found in the soil; hence nearly all the scientific community thought that no life was found because no organic chemicals were detected. Not finding any organics was unusual since meteorites raining on Mars for 5 billion years or so would surely bring some organics. Nevertheless, one must keep in mind that dry areas of Antarctica do not have detectable organic compounds either, but they have organisms living in the rocks.[14] Mars has almost no ozone layer, unlike the Earth, so UV light sterilizes the surface and produces highly reactive chemicals such as peroxides that would oxidize any organic chemicals.[15] Perchlorate may be the oxidizing chemical. The Phoenix Lander discovered the chemical perchlorate in the Martian Soil. Perchlorate is a strong oxidant so it may have destroyed any organic matter on the surface.[16] If it is widespread on Mars, carbon-based life would be difficult at the soil surface. The question of life on Mars received a new, important twist when research, published in the Journal of Geophysical Research in September 2010, proposed that organic compounds were actually present in the soil analyzed by both Viking 1 and 2. The study's authors found that perchlorate will destroy organics when heated and will produce chloromethane and dichloromethane-- the identical chlorine compounds discovered by both Viking landers when they performed the same tests on Mars. So, organic chemicals (maybe from organisms) may have initially been present in the soil but were broken down by perchlorate. [17]

Valles

"Vallis" (plural "valles") is the Latin word for valley. It is used for the naming of landform features on other planets. "Vallis" was used for old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when we probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. [18] [19] [20]

  • Nanedi Valles, as seen by THEMIS

  • Portion of Nanedi Valles, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program Colored strip is about 1 Km across.

  • Close view of part of Bahram Vallis, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Map showing relative positions of several valleys in Lunae Palus quadrangle, including Vedra Valles, Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles. Box indicates where these valleys can be found. Colors show elevation.

River valleys observed by Viking orbiters

The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars. Huge river valleys were found in many areas. They showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers.[21] [22] [23]

Maja Valles, an outflow channel, shaped land around Dromore crater
Teardrop-shaped islands formed from water

Kasei Valles

One of the most significant features of the Lunae Palus region, Kasei Valles, is one of the largest outflow channels on Mars. Like other outflow channels, it was carved by liquid water, probably during gigantic floods. Kasei is about 2,400 km (1500 miles) long. Some sections of Kasei Valles are 300 km (190 miles) wide. It begins in Echus Chasma, near Valles Marineris, and empties into Chryse Planitia, not far from where Viking 1 landed. Sacra Mensa, a large tableland, divides Kasei into northern and southern channels. Kasei Valles is one of the longest continuous outflow channels on Mars. At around 20° north latitude Kasei Valles splits into two channels, called Kasei Vallis Canyon and North Kasei Channel. These branches recombine at around 63° west longitude. Some parts of Kasei Valles are 2–3 km deep.[24] Scientists suggest it was formed several episodes of flooding and maybe by some glacial activity.[25]

Area around northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles, Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles, Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.


The map at the right shows relationships among Kasei Valles, Bahram Vallis, Vedra Valles,Maumee Valles, and Maja Valles. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.

Kasei Valles, as seen by THEMIS
Close view of layers along wall of Kasei Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Layers and channel in Kasei Valles region, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Wide view of small channels in Kasei Valles, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

  • Context picture that shows locations of channels in ESP_075855_2100.

  • Channels in Kasei Valles This HiRISE picture is about 5 Km across.

Deltas

Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas often require deep water over a long period of time to form. Also, the water level needs to be stable to keep sediment from washing away. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range.[26]

Delta in Lunae Palus quadrangle, as seen by THEMIS.
Delta that fills a crater, as seen by HiRISE.

Impact Craters

Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

Crater showing layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program


Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak.[27] The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact.[28] Sometimes craters will display layers. Craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.

West side of Santa Fe Crater
Montevallo Crater, as seen by THEMIS. Image shows a landslide on the north rim.


Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS one of many troughs (long narrow depressions called fossae {Latin}) Fossae form from the crustal stretching by weight of volcanoes.[29] [30]

Layers

  • Layers in Monument Valley. These are accepted as being formed, at least in part by deposition in a large body of water. Since Mars contains similar layers, water remains as a major cause of layering on Mars.

  • Wide view of layers]]

  • Close view of layers, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

More pictures from Lunae Palus quadrangle

  • Wide view of mesas with dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Large group of dark slope streaks along a mesa wall, as seen by HIRISE

  • Close view of end of dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE

  • Dark slope streaks along a mesa wall, as seen by HIRISE Picture is about 1 km across.

  • Close view of end of dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE


Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE 


                                                         Ister Chaos, as seen by HiRISE


Dark slope streaks, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Shapes of streaks have been affected by boulders.


Lava flows


Labeatis Fossae, as seen by THEMIS one of many troughs (long narrow depressions called fossae {Latin}) Fossae form from the crustal stretching by weight of volcanoes.[31] [32]



  • Square shadow as seen by HiRISE With the many tens of thousands of pictures taken with HiRISE some are bound to be strange--that is this was not staged by aliens.

  • Channels that contain transverse aeolian ridges (TAR's), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program

  • Close view of transverse aeolian ridges (TAR's), as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program This image was named HiRISE picture of the day.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Davies, M.E.; Batson, R.M.; Wu, S.S.C. “Geodesy and Cartography” in Kieffer, H.H.; Jakosky, B.M.; Snyder, C.W.; Matthews, M.S., Eds. Mars. University of Arizona Press: Tucson, 1992.
  2. ↑ On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet. 1958–1978, SP-4212. (NASA)
  3. ↑ http://themis.asu.edu/features/ianichaos
  4. ↑ Mutch, T. et al. 1976. "The Surface of Mars: The View from the Viking 2 Lander". Science: 194. 1277–1283.
  5. ↑ Clark, B. et al. 1978. Implications of Abundant Hygroscopic Minerals in the Martian Regolith. Icarus: 34. 645–665
  6. ↑ Toulmin III, P. et al. 1977. "Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of the Viking Inorganic Chemical Results". Journal of Geophysical Research: 82. 4624–4634
  7. ↑ Arvidson, R. A. Binder, and K. Jones. 1976. "The Surface of Mars". Scientific American: 238. 76–89.
  8. ↑ Clark, B. et al. 1976. "Inorganic Analysis of Martian Samples at the Viking Landing Sites". Science: 194. 1283–1288.
  9. ↑ Press Release Images: Opportunity. 25 June 2004 (JPL/NASA)
  10. ↑ Baird, A. et al. 1976. "Mineralogic and Petrologic Implications of Viking Geochemical Results From Mars: Interim Report". Science: 194. 1288–1293.
  11. ↑ Hargraves, R. et al. 1976. Viking Magnetic Properties Investigation: Further Results. Science: 194. 1303–1309.
  12. ↑ Arvidson, R, A. Binder, and K. Jones. "The Surface of Mars". Scientific American
  13. ↑ Bertelsen, P. et al. 2004. "Magnetic Properties Experiments on the Mars Exploration rover Spirit at Gusev Crater". Science: 305. 827–829.
  14. ↑ Friedmann, E. 1982. "Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert". Science: 215. 1045–1052.
  15. ↑ Hartmann, W. 2003. A Traveler's Guide to Mars. Workman Publishing. NY NY.
  16. ↑ NASA Attempts to Quash Mars Rumors. Cara McDonough, August 7, 2008.
  17. ↑ NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "Did Viking Mars landers find life's building blocks? Missing piece inspires new look at puzzle." Science Daily 5 September 2010.
  18. ↑ author=Hugh H. Kieffer|title=Mars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoDvAAAAMAAJ%7Caccessdate=7 March 2011|date=1992|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-1257-7
  19. ↑ Raeburn, P. 1998. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars. National Geographic Society. Washington D.C.
  20. ↑ Moore, P. et al. 1990. The Atlas of the Solar System. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.
  21. ↑ *Kieffer, H., et al. (eds) 1992. Mars. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson
  22. ↑ Raeburn, P. 1998. Uncovering the Secrets of the Red Planet Mars. National Geographic Society. Washington D.C.
  23. ↑ Moore, P. et al. 1990. The Atlas of the Solar System. Mitchell Beazley Publishers NY, NY.
  24. ↑ Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. University of Texas Press. Austin
  25. ↑ http://themis.asu.edu/features_kaseivalles
  26. ↑ Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. "An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake development". Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15
  27. ↑ http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/stones/
  28. ↑ Kieffer, H., et al. (eds) 1992. Mars. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson
  29. ↑ http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html
  30. ↑ Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel. 2007. Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)
  31. ↑ http://www.marsartgallery.com/marsnames.html
  32. ↑ Skinner, J., L. Skinner, and J. Kargel. 2007. Re-assessment of Hydrovolcanism-based Resurfacing within the Galaxias Fossae Region of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII (2007)


Recommended reading

  • Baker, V. 1982. The Channels of Mars. Univ. of Tex. Press, Austin, TX
  • Grotzinger, J., R. Milliken (eds.). 2012. Sedimentary Geology of Mars. Tulsa: Society for Sedimentary Geology.
  • Kieffer, H., et al. (eds) 1992. Mars. The University of Arizona Press. Tucson
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